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THE 


ETHNOLOGY   OF    EUROPE. 


THE 


ETHNOLOGY  OF  EUEOPE 


BY 

R.  G.  LATHAM,  M.D., 

ETC. 


LONDON : 

JOHN   VAN   VOOEST,   PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


.  ^ 


LONDON: 

Printed  by  Samuel  Bentlet  and  Co., 

Bangor  House,  Shoe  Lane. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

Preliminary  Observations. — The  Physical  Peculiarities 
of  Europe.  —  General  Sketch  of  its  Ethnology.  —  State- 
ment of  Problems.  —  The  Skipetar,  or  Albanians.  — 
Their  Language,  Descent.  —  The  Four  Tribes.  —  How- 
far  a  Pure  Stock. — Elements  of  Intermixture.  .         .       1 


CHAPTER  II.      ' 

Spain  and  Portugal. — The  Euskaldunac,  or  Basques. 

—  The  Iberian  Stock.' — The  Turdetanian  Civilization. 
— Phoenician,  Roman,  Vandal,  Gothic  Elements.  — 
Keltiberians. — The  Original  Keltse  Iberians. — The  Word 
"Keltic"  of  Iberian  Origin.— The  Arab  Conquest. — Ex- 
pulsion of  the  Arabs. — The  Jews  of  Spain.  —  Gipsies. 

—  Physical  and  Moral  Characteristics  of  the  Modern 
Spaniards. — Portugal 21 


CHAPTER  III. 

France. — Iberian  Blood  in  Gaul  as  well  as  the  Spanish 
Peninsula. — Iberians  of  Gascony,  &c, — Ligurians. — How 
far  Keltic.  —  Bodencus. —  Intermixture. —  Roman,  Ger- 


VI  COIN^TENTS. 

PAGE 

man,  Arab. — Alsatia.  — Lorraine.  — Franche-Comte.  — 
Burgundy,  Southepi,  Western,  and  Northern  France.  — 
Character  of  the  Kelts.— The  Albigensian  Crusade. — 
Belgium. — Its  Elements. — Keltic,  German,  and  Roman. 
^Switzerland. — Helvetia. — Romance,  French,  and  Ger- 
man Languages.  47 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Italy. — Ligurians. — Etruscans. — Venetians  and  Libur- 
nians. — Umbrians. — Ausonians. — Latins. — Earliest  Popu- 
lations of  North-Eastern  Italy. — South  Italians. — Italian 
Origin  of  the  Greeks. — Sicilians. — Elements  of  Admix- 
ture.— Herulian. — Gothic. — Lombard. — Arab. — Norman. 
— Analytical  Sketch  of  the  Population  of  Modern  Italy.  .     80 


CHAPTER  V. 

Importance  of  Clearness  of  Idea  respecting  the  Import 
of  the  Word  *'Race."  —  The  Pelasgi. — Area  of  Homeric 
Greece. — Acarnania  not  Hellenic. — The  Dorians. — Egyp- 
tian, Semitic,  and  other  Influences. — Historical  Greece. — 
Macedonians.  —  Greece  under  Rome  and  Byzantium.  — 
Inroads  of  Barbarians. — The  Slavonic  Conquest. — Recent 
Elements  of  Admixture 125 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Russian  Populations  Sarmatian  and  Turanian.  — 
Samoeids  Turanian.  —  Ugrians.  —  Lapps.  —  Kwains.  — 
Esthonians. — Liefs. — Permians. — Siranians. — Votiaks. — 
Tsheremiss,  Tshuvatsh,  Morduin. — Lithuanians. — Malo- 
russians  and  Muscovites. — Their  recent  Introduction. — 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

PAGE 

The  Skoloti. — Early  Displacements. — Ugrian  Glosses. — 
Indian  Affinities  of  the  Lithuania. — Russian  Poland. — 
Analytical  View  of  the  Present  Populations  of  Russia. — 
Arkhangel. —  Finland.  —  Esthonia. —  Livonia. — Perm. — 
Simbirsk,  Penza. — Lithuania. — Volhynia. — Kharkhov. — 
Kosaks. — Kherson. — Taurida 146 


CHAPTER  VIL 

Wallachia  and  Moldavia. — Rumanyos. — Descent  from 
the  Daci. — Sarmatian  Origin. — Servia. — Montenegro.     .  182 


CHAPTER  Vin. 

Frisian,  Saxon,  Dutch,  and  Gothic  Germans. — German- 
ized Kelts. — Germanized  Slaves. — Prussia. — Isolation  of 
its  Areas. — East  and  West  Prussia. — Prussian  Poland. — 
Pomerania.  —  Prussian  Silesia.  —  Prussian  Saxony.  — 
Brandenburg. —  Uckermark. — South-Western  Portion. — 
Westphalian  and  Rhenish  Prussia. — Mecklenburg. — Sax- 
ony.— Linones  of  Luneburg. — Hanover  and  Oldenburg. — 
Holland.  —  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Nassau.  — 
Baden. — Wurtemburg. — Weimar. — Rhenish  Bavaria. — 
Danubian  Bavaria. 187 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Great  Britain. — Denmark. — The  Islands. — The  Vithes- 
leth. — Fyen. — Lauenburg. —  Holstein. — Sleswick. — Jut- 
land.— Iceland. — The  Feroe  Isles. — Norway. — Sweden. 
— Lapps. —  Kwains. —  Gothlanders. —  Angermannians. — 
Theory  of  the  Scandinavian  Population.  .        .         .  199 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  X. 

PAGE 

Rumelia. —  The  Turk  Stock. — Zones  of  Conquest. — 
Early  Intrusions  of  Turk  Populations  Westward.  — 
Thracians. — The  Ancient  Macedonians. — The  Pelasgi  of 
Macedonia. — Bosnia,  Herzegovna  and  Turkish  Croatia. — 
Bulgaria 221 

CHAPTER  XL 

Austria. — Bukhovinia,  Gallicia,  and  Lodomiria. — Bo- 
hemia and  Moravia.  —  Austrian  Silesia. — Dalmatia. — 
Croatia. — Carniola. — Carinthia. —  Styria. — Saltzburg,  the 
Tyrol,  the  Vorarlberg. —  Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  — 
Hungary.      .  238 


ERRATUM. 

Page  3,  line  6,  for  greater  read  less. 


I 


ETHNOLOGY   OF    EUROPE. 


CHAPTER  I. 


PRELIMINARY  OBSERVATIONS. THE    PHYSICAL    PECULIARITIES    OF 

EUROPE. GENERAL  SKETCH  OF    ITS    ETHNOLOGY.  —  STATEMENT 

OF    PROBLEMS. THE    SKIPETAR,  OR    ALBANIANS. — THEIR    LAN- 
GUAGE,   DESCENT. THE     FOUR    TRIBES. HOW    FAR    A     PURE 

STOCK. ELEMENTS  OF  INTERMIXTURE. 

The  proper  introduction  to  the  ethnology  of 
Europe  is  the  following  series  of  preliminaries  : — 

1.  The  physical  peculiarities  of  the  quarter 
of  the  world  so  called  ; 

2.  A  general  view  of  the  stocks,  families,  or 
races  which  occupy  it ; 

3.  A  statement  of  the  chief  problems  connected 
with  the  Natural  History  of  its  populations. 

1.  The  physical  conditions  of  Europe  are  as  re- 
markable in  respect  to  their  negative  as  their  posi- 
tive characters ;  in  other  words,  there  is  a  great 
number  of  points  wherein  Europe  differs  from  Asia, 
Africa,  America,  and  Polynesia,  in  respect  to  what 
it  has  not,  as  well  as  in  respect  to  what  it  has. 

These  negative  points  will  be  treated  first. 


2  PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES 

a.  No  part  of  Europe  lies  between  the  Tropics  ; 
so  that  the  luxuriance  of  a  spontaneous  and  varied 
vegetation,  with  its  pernicious  tendencies  to  in- 
cline the  habits  of  its  population  to  idleness,  is 
wanting.  The  rank  and  rapid  growth  of  the 
plants  which  serve  as  food  to  men  and  animals, 
and  which  dispense  with  labour,  nowhere  occurs. 

h.  No  part  comes  under  the  class  of  Steppes ;  or, 
at  most,  but  imperfectly  approaches  their  charac- 
ter. In  Asia,  the  vast  table-lands  of  the  centre, 
occupied  by  the  Turks  and  Mongols,  have  ever 
been  the  cradle  of  an  active,  locomotive,  hungry, 
and  aggressive  population.  And  these  have  seen, 
with  a  strong  desire  to  possess,  the  more  favoured 
areas  of  the  south ;  and  have  conquered  them 
accordingly.  The  Luneburg  Heath,  and  parts  of 
Hanover  are  the  nearest  resemblances  to  the  great 
Steppes  of  Mongolia,  and  Independent  Tartary; 
but  they  are  on  a  small  and  beggarly  scale.  In 
Russia,  where  the  land  is  flat  and  level,  the 
ground  is  also  fertile,  so  that  agriculture  has  been 
practicable,  and  (being  practicable)  has  bound  the 
occupant  to  the  soil,  instead  of  mounting  him  on 
fleet  horses  to  wander  with  his  flocks  and  herds 
from  spot  to  spot,  to  become  a  shepherd  by  habit, 
and  a  warrior  by  profession ;  for  in  all  countries, 
shepherds  and  hunters  are  marauders  on  a  small, 
and  conquerors  on  a  large  scale. 

c.  Europe  is  narrowest  in  its  northern  parts. 


OF  EUROPE.  S 

This  has  had  the  effect  of  limiting  those  populations 
of  the  colder  climes,  whose  scanty  means  of  sub- 
sistence at  home,  incline  them  to  turn  their  faces 
southwards,  with  the  view  of  conquest,  and  supply 
them  with  numbers  to  effect  their  purpose. 

d.  Its  diameter  from  north  to  south  is  g-roator  ^^^ 
than  its  diameter  from  east  to  west.  This  has  kept 
the  mass  of  its  population  within  a  similar  climate  ; 
or,  if  not  within  a  similar  climate,  within  a  range 
of  temperature  far  less  wide  than  that  which  sepa- 
rates the  African,  the  American,  or  the  Asiatic 
of  the  northern  parts  of  their  respective  con- 
tinents from  the  Hottentot  of  the  Cape,  the 
Fuegian  of  Cape  Horn,  and  the  Malay  of  the 
Malayan  Peninsula.  It  has  given  uniformity  to 
its  occupants ;  since  varieties  increase  as  we  pro- 
ceed from  south  to  north,  but  not  as  we  go  from 
east  to  west — or  vice  versa. 

Amongst  its  positive  features  the  most  remark- 
able are  connected  with  its  mountain-ranges,  the 
extent  of  its  sea-board,  and  the  direction  of  its 
rivers. 

a.  In  no  country  are  the  great  levels  morebroken\ 
by  mountains,  or  the  great  mountains  more  in' 
contiguity  to  considerable  tracts  of  level  country,  i 
The  effect  of  this  is  to  give  the  different  characters 
of  the  Mountaineer  and  the  Lowlander  more 
opportunity  of  acting  and  reacting  on  each  other. 

b.  In  no  country  are  the  coasts  more  indented. 


4  PHYSICAL  PECULIARITIES 

We  may  look  in  vain  for  such  a  sea-board  as  that 
of  Greece,  elsewhere.  The  effect  of  this  is  to 
give  the  different  characters  of  the  sailor  and 
landsman,  the  producer  and  the  trader,  more  op- 
portunity of  acting  and  reacting  on  each  other. 

c.  Its  greatest  rivers  fall  into  seas  navigable 
throughout  the  year.  Contrast  with  this  the  great 
rivers  of  Asia,  the  Obi,  the  Lena,  the  Yenesey, 
and  others,  which  for  the  purposes  of  navigation 
are  useless ;  falling,  as  they  do,  into  an  Arctic  sea. 

d»  Our  greatest  river,  the  Danube,  runs  from 
east  to  west.  This  ensures  a  homogeneous  cha- 
racter for  the  population  along  its  banks.  Con- 
trast with  this  the  Nile,  the  Missisippi,  and  the 
Yenesey,  in  all  of  which  the  simple  effect  of 
climate  creates  a  difference  between  the  popula- 
tions of  the  source  and  the  embouchure.  The 
great  rivers  of  China  do  the  same  as  the  Danube ; 
but  the  Danube  differs  from  them,  and  from  all 
other  rivers  running  in  a  like  direction,  in  empty- 
ing itself  into  an  inland  sea;  a  sea  which  gives 
the  opportunity  of  communication  not  only  with 
the  parts  north  and  south  of  the  rivers  which  fall 
into  it,  but  with  those  to  the  east  of  it  also. 
The  Hoang-ho  and  Kiang-ku  empty  themselves 
into  an  ocean,  that,  in  these  days  of  steam  com- 
munication, leads  to  America,  but  which  in  the 
infancy  of  the  world  led  to  a  coasting  trade  only, 
or,  at  most,  to  a  large  island — Japan.     The  Baltic 


OF  EUROPE.  5 

and  Mediterranean  act,  to  a  certain  degree,  in  the 
same  manner.  The  one  has  Africa,  the  other 
Scandinavia,  to  ensure  its  being  put  to  the  uses 
of  trade. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  do  the  differences  be- 
tween the  varieties  of  the  human  species  lie  within 
narrower  limits  than  in  Europe.  The  most  ex- 
treme opponents  to  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  our 
kind  have  never  made  many  species  out  of  the 
European  specimens  of  the  genus  Homo,  And 
these  are  by  no  means  of  the  most  satisfactory  sort. 

They  are  unsatisfactory  for  the  following  rea- 
sons. The  differences  that  are  inferred  from  dis- 
similarity of  language,  are  neutralised  by  an 
undoubted  similarity  of  physical  form.  The  dis- 
similarities that  are  inferred  from  peculiarities 
of  physical  form  are  neutralised  by  undeniable 
affinities  of  speech.  Looking  to  his  size  and 
colour,  the  Laplander  is  far,  very  far,  removed 
from  the  Fin.  Yet  the  languages  belong  to  one 
and  the  same  class.  Looking  to  their  tongues, 
the  Basque  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Skipetar 
(or  Albanian  of  Albania)  are  each  isolated  popu- 
lations. Yet  their  form  is  but  slightly  different 
from  those  of  the  other  Europeans. 

Now  the  physical  condition  of  our  continent 
makes  the  intermixture  of  blood,  and  the  diffusion 
of  ideas  easy :  and,  I  believe,  that  the  effects  of 
both  are  more  notable  in  Europe  than  elsewhere. 


6  EUROPEAN   STOCKS. 

2,  The  families,  stocks,  or  races,  which  occupy 
Europe  will  be  taken  in  the  order  which  is  most 
convenient;  so  that  it  will  be  practical  rather 
than  scientific. 

a.  In  Malta  the  language  is  Arabic,  and,  of 
course,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  blood  also.  But 
Malta  is  European  only  in  respect  to  its  political 
relations.     Still  its  population  requires  notice. 

b.  The  Osmanlis,  or  Turks  of  Turkey,  are 
Asiatic  rather  than  European ;  an  intrusive  popu- 
lation whose  introduction  is  within  its  historical 
period.  I  will  not  say,  however,  that  in  the  parts 
between  the  Dnieper  and  Don,  members  of  the 
same  great  stock  may  not  have  been  settled  in 
the  times  anterior  to  history.  In  the  following 
pages,  the  Turks  of  Europe  will  be  called  Osman- 
lis, or  Ottomans  :  since  the  word  Turk  is  a  generic 
name  applied  to  the  family  to  which  they,  along 
with  the  Independent  Tartars,  the  Uzbeks,  the 
Turcomans,  the  Turks  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Yakuts 
on  the  borders  of  the  Icy  Sea,  and  several  other 
great  branches,  extending  to  the  frontier  of  China, 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  belong.  The  Turk  is 
European,  as  the  New  Englander  is  American ; 
i.e.f  not  strictly  so. 

c.  To  a  certain  extent  this  foreign  origin  must 
be  attributed  to  a  member  of  the  next  family 
— the  Majiar  of  Hungar3^  He  conquered  his 
present   occupancy  in   the   tenth  century.      He 


I 


EUROPEAIf   STOCKS. 


differs,  however,  from  the  Turk,  in  belonging  to 
a  class,  group,  or  stock  of  populations  which, 
although  Asiatic  to  a  great  extent,  is  European 
as  well.     This  is  the  stock  which  is  called  — 

The  Ugrian,  a  stock  which  is  the  only  one 
common  to  both  Europe  and  Asia,  and  contains 
the  Lapps,  the  Finlanders,  the  Esthonians,  and 
some  other  smaller  populations  on  the  European 
feeders  of  the  Volga.  The  particular  branch, 
however,  from  which  the  Majiars  were  derived  is 
Asiatic. 

The  next  two  stocks  consist  of  a  single  family 
each,  and  they  are  mentioned  together  because 
they  are  so  isolated  as  to  have  no  known  affinities 
either  with  each,  or  with  any  other  population. 
These  are — 

d.  The  Basques  of  Biscay  and  Gascony,  i.e., 
the  Western  Pyrenees ;  once  spread  over  the 
whole  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  for  that 
reason  commonly  called  Iberian — 

e.  The  Skipetar,  or  Albanians  of  Albania. 

I  am  taking,  as  aforesaid,  the  populations  in 
the  order  of  convenience,  and  the  next  is 

/.  The  Keltic*  This  stock  was  indigenous  to 
the  water-systems  of  the  Loire,  the  Seine,  and 
the  Rhone,  in  other  words,  to  the  whole  of  France 
north  of  the  Garonnp ;    to*  the    south    of  which 

*  The  great  incorrectness,  and  occasional  inconvenience  of 
this  name  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel. 


8  EUROPEAN   STOCKS. 

river  lay  the  Iberians.  From  Gaul  it  spread  to 
Great  Britain.  Its  present  representatives  are 
the  Bretons  of  Brittany,  the  Welsh,  the  Gaels 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  and  the  Manxmen  of 
the  Isle  of  Man — 

g.  The  Gothic  or  German — 

h.  The  Sarmatian,  or  Slavono-Lithuanic,  con- 
taining the  Slavonians  and  Lithuanians  of  Russia, 
Poland,  Bohemia,  Servia,  Carinthia,  Lithuania, 
with  other  less  important  areas,  and  lastly — 

i.  The  classical  or  Greco-Latin  stock  of  Italy 
and  Greece,  completing  the  list  of  the  European 
stocks. 

These  three  are  more  closely  allied  to  each 
other  than  any  of  the  previous  ones.  They  are 
also  nearer  the  Keltic ;  so  much  so,  that  a  single 
class  has  been  made  out  of  the  four,  a  class 
called  Indo-European.  The  study,  however,  of 
the  value  of  classes  is  in  its  infancy.  The  real 
fact  that  they  are  allied  to  an  extent  to  which 
the  others  are  not,  is  important. 

Such  are  the  existing  groups ;  but  when  we 
consider  how  small  is  the  number  of  the  Basques, 
the  only  present  representatives  of  the  great 
Iberian  class,  and  that  their  preservation  to  the 
present  time  is  mainly  due  to  the  accidental  cir- 
cumstances of  their  occupancy  of  a  stronghold  in 
the  Pyrenees,  a  new  series  of  facts  is  suggested. 
The  likelihood  of  stocks  now  extinct  having  once 


IL  EUROPEAN  STOCKS.  9 

existed,  presents  itself;  and  with  it,  a  fresh  ques- 
s 


ion. 
The  same  suggestion  arises  when  we  look  at 
e  country  occupied  by  the  intrusive  families 
of  the  Osmanlis  and  the  Majiars  of  Rumelia  and 
Hungary.  The  populations  here  are  compara- 
tively new-comers ;  yet  it  was  no  uninhabited 
tracts  that  they  appropriated.  Who  was  there 
before  them  ?  Perhaps  some  members  of  one 
of  the  stocks  now  existing.  Perhaps,  a  wholly 
different  family  now  extinct. 

Again — the  displacements  effected  by  the  dif- 
ferent European  populations,  one  with  another, 
have  been  enormous.  See  how  the  Saxons  over- 
ran England,  the  Romans  Spain  and  Gaul. 
How  do  we  know  that  some  small  stock  was 
not  annihilated  here  ?  History,  it  may  be  said, 
tells  us  the  contrary.  From  history  we  learn 
that  all  the  ancient  Spaniards  were  allied  to  the 
ancestors  of  the  Basques,  all  Gaul  to  those  of 
the  Bretons,  all  England  to  those  of  the  Welsh. 
Granted.  But  what  does  history  tell  us  about 
Bavaria,  Styria,  the  Valley  of  the  Po,  or  Ancient 
Thrace  ?  In  all  these  parts  the  present  popula- 
tion is  known  to  be  recent,  and  the  older  known 
next  to  not  at  all.  The  reconstruction  of  the 
original  populations  of  such  areas  as  these  is 
one  of  the  highest  problems  in  ethnology.  To 
what   did   they  belong,    an   existing  stock  more 


10  EUROPEAN  STOCKS. 

widely  extended  than  now,  or  a  fresh  stock  alto- 
gether ? 

My  own  belief  is,  that  the  number  of  European 
stocks  for  which  there  is  an  amount  of  evidence 
sufficient  to  make  their  extinction  a  reasonable 
doctrine,  is  two — two  and  no  more ;  and,  even 
with  these,  the  doctrine  of  their  extinction  is  only 
reasonable. 

a.  The  old  Etruscans  are  the  first  of  these ; 

h.  The  Pelasgi  the  second. 

Each  will  be  noticed  in  its  proper  place. 

I  have  used  the  word  extinction.  I  must  now 
qualify  it ;  reminding  the  reader  that  .this  very 
qualification  introduces  a  new  and  difficult  sub- 
ject. Extinction  often  means  no  more  than  the 
abolition  of  the  outward  and  visible  signs  of  eth- 
nological difference.  A  negro  marries  a  white. 
In  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh  generation, 
as  the  case  may  be,  his  descendant  is,  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes,  a  white  man.  Yet  the  negro 
blood  is  not  extinguished.  It  exists,  though  in  a 
small  proportion. 

Again — a  Cornishman  loses  his  native  language 
and  speaks  English  as  his  mother  tongue.  Many 
generations  before  he  did  this  he  differed  from 
the  Englishman  in  speech  only.  Is  his  British 
blood  extinguished?  No.  The  chief  sign  of  it 
has  been  lost.     That  is  all. 

So  that — 


EUROPEAN  STOCKS.  11 

Stocks  may  intermix,  and — 

Stocks  may  lose  their  characteristics. 

Now  both  these  phenomena  are  eminently  com- 
mon in  European  ethnology;  and  this  is  what 
we  expect  from  history.  Two  populations,  the 
Roman  and  the  German,  have  more  than  doubled 
their  original  areas.  Were  all  the  old  inhabi- 
tants, male  and  female,  old  and  young,  in  the 
countries  that  they  appropriated,  put  to  the 
sword  ?  We  hope  and  believe  the  contrary.  In 
most  cases  we  know  they  were  not.  Sometimes 
there  was  intermarriage.  This  produced  inter- 
mixture. Sometimes  the  language,  religion,  laws, 
and  habits  of  the  conquerors  were  adopted  by  the 
conquered.  This  was  a  loss  of  characteristics. 
So  far  greater  than  the  influences  of  all  the  other 
populations  of  Europe  have  been  those  of  the 
Germans  and  the  Romans  (to  which,  for  the 
eastern  part  of  the  continent,  we  must  add  the 
Turks),  that  for  nearly  half  Europe,  whenever 
the  question  will  be  one  of  great  intermixture, 
the  basis  will  be  Keltic,  Iberic,  or  Sarmatian  as 
the  case  may  be,  with  Romans  or  Germans  for 
the  source  of  the  superadded  elements. 

3.  The  chief  problems  of  the  present  volume 
will,  for  the  present,  only  be  stated;  the  results 
being  reserved  for  the  conclusion.  They  are 
two — 

a.  The  extent    to    which  what   is    commonly 


12  THE    SKIPETAR 

called  Race  is  the  result  of  circumstances,  or 
whether  circumstances  be  the  effect  of  race,  i.e. 
whether  Race  (so  called)  is  a  cause  or  an 
effect  ? 

b.  The  extent  to  which  differences  of  what  is 
called  race  is  an  element  in  national  likes  and  dis- 
likes, predilections  or  antipathies. 

It  caffinot  be  denied  that  each  of  these  is  a 
point  of  practical  as  well  as  theoretical  impor- 
tance. 

*  *  *  * 

The  areas  with  which  it  is  most  convenient  to 
begin,  are  those  of  the  two  isolated  stocks,  the 
Skipetar  (Albanian),  and  the  Iberian,  —  Albania 
and  the  Spanish  peninsula.  Of  these  Albania  will 
be  taken  first. 

Many  writers  have  considered  the  Albanian  and 
the  Iberic  stocks  to  be  the  two  oldest  in  Europe ; 
and  there  is  no  want  of  reasonable  grounds  for 
the  doctrine.  It  is  not,  however,,  for  this  reason 
that  they  come  first  in  the  list. 

Nor  is  it  because  the  Skipetar  of  Albania  are 
the  more  eastern  of  the  two  that  they  take  pre- 
cedence of  the  Iberians ;  although,  in  the  eyes  of 
such  inquirers  as  deduce  the  European  popula- 
tions from  Asia,  their  position  on  the  frontier 
of  Europe  gives  good  grounds  for  doing  so. 

The  true  reason  is  practical  rather  than  scien- 
tific,  arising  out  of  the  line  of  criticism  which 


OR  ALBANIANS.  IS 

will  be  found  necessary  for  the  forthcoming  inves- 
tigation. 

It  is  so  convenient  to  take  Gaul  next  to  the 
Spanish  peninsula,  Italy  next  to  Gaul,  and  Greece 
next  to  Italy,  that  the  necessity  for  breaking  the 
continuity  of  the  arrangement  vehen  v^^e  come  to 
Albania  must  be  avoided;  and  this  is  done  by 
dealing  with  Albania  at  the  very  first,  and^getting 
its  ethnology  disposed  of  as  a  preliminary.  It 
could  not  be  taken  in  hand  after  that  of  Greece, 
for  reasons  which  will  appear  when  we  come  to 
that  country. 

The  native  name  of  the  Albanians  is  Skipetar, 
or  Mountaineer  J  and  this  is  of  some  importance ; 
as  will  be  seen  in  the  sequel.  The  word  Albanian 
is,  I  think,  Roman.  Arvanitce  is  the  form  found 
in  the  Byzantine  writers.  This  is  converted  by 
the  Turks  into  Arnaout.  It  is  unlucky  that  the 
word  is  one  which  appears  elsewhere,  viz.,  in 
Caucasus,  where  the  ancient  name  of  the  modern 
province  of  Daghestan  is  called  Albania  in  the 
classical  writers.  So  is  Scotland;  and  so  also 
part  of  England;  Albyn  being  the  Gaelic  name 
out  of  which  our  French  neighbours  get  their 
Albion  perjide,  for  the  purposes  of  rhetoric  and 
poetry.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  occurrence 
of  forms  so  similar  is  strange;  and  it  is  against 
the  chances  that  it  should  be  accidental.  The 
explanation  which   suggests   itself  is  as  follows. 


14  THE  SKIPETAR 

Pliny  mentions  a  people  termed  Alhanenses,  as 
one  of  the  Liburnian  tribes ;  whilst  Ptolemy  gives 
us  a  town  called  Albanopolis  in  the  southern  part  of 
Illyricum.  Now,  as  we  know  that  the  name  is  not 
native,  as  we  seek  for  it  in  vain  amongst  the  early 
Greek  writers,  and  as  the  opposite  coast  of  Italy 
was  occupied  by  the  Cisalpine  and  Cispadane 
Gauls,  iive  have  reasons  for  considering  Alhyn  as 
applied  to  Scotland,  and  Alhyn  as  applied  to  the 
mountainous  country  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Adriatic  and  Ionian  seas,  to  be  one  and  the  same 
word,  referable  to  one  and  the  same  Keltic  group 
of  tongues.  Hence,  it  contains  the  root  ^/p= 
mountain^  and  translates  the  native  name  Skipetar 
=mountaineer,  &c. 

Like  all  such  coincidences  it  has  done  mischief 
in  the  way  of  ethnology.  Though  few  have  de- 
rived the  Skipetar  from  Scotland,  many  have  done 
so  from  Caucasus — and  that  on  the  strength  of 
the  name.  Yet  it  is  as  little  native  in  the  one 
locality  as  the  other,  since  no  nation  of  Daghes- 
tan  calls  itself  Albanian,  a  fact  which  precludes 
all  arguments  in  favour  of  a  real  community  of 
origin  from  the  similarity  of  name  in  limine;  or 
rather  a  fact  which  ought  to  do  so,  for  the  Cau- 
casian origin  of  the  Skipetar  still  has  its  sup- 
porters. 

Their  present  area  extends  from  Montenegro 
to  the  Gulf  of  Arta ;  the  northern  frontier  being 


OR  ALBAIflANS.  15 

Slavonic,  the  southern  Greek.  Eastwards  it 
reaches  the  back-bone  of  Turkey,  or  the  water- 
shed between  the  small  rivers  which  empty  them- 
selves into  the  Adriatic,  and  the  larger  ones 
which  fall  into  the  Mgesna. — a  very  Switzerland 
for  its  ruggedness.  Hence,  the  Skipetar  are  a 
nation  of  Highlanders,  more  so  than  any  other 
population  of  Europe,  since  the  Basques  of  the 
Pyrenees  are  inconsiderable  in  area,  and  the 
Swiss  are  divided  between  the  Germans,  the 
French,  the  Roman,  and  the  Italian  families. 
They  lie,  too,  more  to  the  south  than  any  other 
mountaineers,  and  it  is  not  very  fanciful  to  ima- 
gine that  if  they  were  Lowlanders,  their  skin  and 
hair  would  approach  that  of  the  Greeks,  with 
some  of  whom  they  lie  under  the  same  parallel. 
If  so,  their  mountain  habitat  counteracts  the  effect 
of  their  southern  sun,  by  a  species  of  compensa- 
tion common  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

The  testimony  of  travellers  to  their  belonging 
to  the  fair-complexioned  and  grey-eyed  popula- 
tions is  pretty  general,  although  Skene  gives  the 
Mirdite  tribe  a  swarthy  complexion  and  black 
eyes.  The  evidence,  too,  as  to  their  bulk  and' 
stature  varies;  some  writers  giving  them  spare, 
light,  and  tall  forms,  others  making  them  shorter, 
and  more  square-built  than  the  Greek.  That  the 
eye  has  less  animation,  and  the  countenance  less 
vivacity    (in  other  words,  that   the   Albanian  is 


16  THE  SKIPETAR 

heavy-featured  as  compared  with  his  quick-witted 
neighbours)  is  certain. 

Both  the  men  and  women  are  hardy,  and  ex- 
pose their  bodies  freely  to  the  atmosphere,  accus- 
toming themselves  to  an  out-door  life  amongst 
their  flocks  and  herds,  and  dwelling,  when  in- 
doors, in  rude  huts.  Like  the  Swiss,  they  wil- 
lingly let  out  their  valour  and  hardihood  in 
military  service  ;  and  the  best  and  most  unscru- 
pulous soldiers  of  the  sultan  are  those  recruits, 
who  partly  by  force,  partly  by  pay,  are  brought 
from  Albania.  Hence  we  find  Albanians  far  beyond 
the  pale  of  Albania;  in  Greece,  in  Thrace,  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  in  Egypt,  and  even  in  Persia. 
The  tribes,  too,  amongst  themselves  indulge  in 
the  right  of  private  quarrel,  rarely  rising  to  the 
dignity  of  warfare,  but  more  like  the  old  border- 
feuds  of  England  and  Scotland  With  the  Sla- 
vonians of  Montenegro,  different  from  themselves 
in  blood  and  political  relations,  the  warfare  is 
more  bitter  and  serious,  and  the  Albano-Slavonic 
frontier  is  the  continual  scene  of  aggression  and 
reprisal  and  intrigue. 

It  was  only  under  their  famous  chieftain,  George 
Castriote,  or  Scanderbeg,  that  the  Skipetar  played 
the  part  of  a  nation  of  any  importance  in  Euro- 
pean history,  and  here  their  actions  were  what  we  ' 
expect  beforehand — those  of  brave  mountaineers, 
to  whom  war  is  a  habit,  and  with  whom  depen- 

i 


OR    ALBAIsHANS.  17 

dence  has  always  been  but  nominal.  To  the 
intellectual  and  moral  history  of  Europe  they 
have  contributed  nothing.  Their  alphabet  is  the 
Greek,  slightly  modified,  and  their  literature 
either  unwritten,  or  confined  to  ecclesiastical  sub- 
jects. 

Creeds  sit  easy  upon  them.  Before  the  Otto- 
man conquest  they  were  Christians,  partly  of  the 
Greek,  partly  of  the  Roman  church.  At  present 
they  are  divided  between  the  three,  the  majority 
being  Mahometans. 

The  Skipetar  language  has  long  drawn  the  at- 
tention of  philologists ;  for  it  has  long  been  known 
to  be  as  little  like  the  Greek  and  Slavonic  of  the 
parts  around,  as  it  is  to  the  Turkish.  The  notion 
that  it  was  a  mere  medley  of  the  three  soon  dis- 
appeared; and  when  the  Albanian  became  recog- 
nised as  a  separate  substantive  language,  its 
remarkable  isolation  was  a  source  of  great  doubt 
and  perplexity.  The  latest  author  who  has  in- 
vestigated it,  Xylander,  considers  it  to  be  Indo- 
European,  and  in  this  Prichard  agrees  with  him. 
I  think,  however,  that  it  cannot  be  placed  in  that 
group  without  enlarging  the  extent  of  the  class, 
Le,,  without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  term. 
Whatever  it  may  he,  it  is  not  intermediate  to  the 
Latin  and  Greeks  a  fact  of  which  the  import  will 
be  seen  when  we  come  to  the  ethnology  of  Greece 
and  Italy. 


18  THE    SKIPETAR 

The  Skipetar  fall  into  the  following  divisions, 
clans,  or  tribes. 

1.  The  Gheghides,  containing — 

a.  The  proper  Gheghides,  the  most  northern 
of  the  Skipetar,  conterminous  with  the  Slavonic 
countries  of  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Herze- 
govna,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  river  Drin — 

h.  The  Mirdites,  south  of  the  Drin,  in  the 
province  of  Croia,  who  like  the  Gheghides,  are 
Christians. 

The  Gheghides,  as  a  class,  are  dark-skinned  and 
black-eyed. 

^.  The  Toskides  of  Toskuria,  or  the  country 
between  Croia  and  the  Vojutza,  the  least  moun- 
tainous part  of  Albania  and  containing  the  valleys 
of  the  Sternatza  and  the  Beratina,  are  more  light 
than,  dark,  with  blue  or  grey  eyes, 

3.  The  Liapides  of  Liapuria,  or  the  valley 
and  water-shed  of  the  Deropuli  and  the  parts 
about  Delvinaki,  are  the  worst-looking  and  most 
demoralized  of  the  Skipetar.  Such  at  least  is 
their  character. 

4.  The  Dzhami  of  Dzhamuria  are  the  most 
agricultural.  They  extend  from  the  Liapides  on 
the  north,  to  the  Greek  frontier  southward, 
Parga  and  Suli  being  two  of  their  towns. 

The  purity  of  the  Albanian  blood  is  consider- 
able ;  and  I  believe  that,  as  the  Skipetar  were 
once  spread  far   wdder  in   every  direction   than 


OR   ALBANIANS.  19 

they  are  to  be  found  at  present,*  and  as  their 
frontier  has  receded,  the  amount  of  Albanian 
blood  beyond  Albania  is  very  great,  whereas  the 
foreign  blood  within  Albania  itself  is  but  slight. 
The  dark  complexions  of  the  Gheghides  may,  or 
may  not,  be  referable  to  Slavonic  intermixture. 
The  lighter  skins  of  the  Toskides  may,  or  may  not, 
indicate  purity.  It  is  worth  remarking,  however, 
that  the  fair  complexion  is  found  in  the  parts 
most  removed  from  the  frontier,  as  well  as  in  the 
parts  where  the  intermixture  (such  as  it  is)  has 
been  the  least. 

The  Taulantii  and  Parthini  are  the  populations 
of  antiquity,  whose  localities  coincide  with  that 
of  the  Toskides.  The  colonies  of  Epidamnus 
and  Apollonia  suggest  the  notion  of  Greek,  the 
Via  Egnatia  of  Roman  intermixture. 

The  Liapides  are  in  the  country  of  the  Orestas 
and  Atintanes,  the  Gheghs  in  that  of  the  En- 
cheleae,  the  Mirdites  in  that  of  the  Pirustae.  In 
the  northern  part  of  their  area  was  the  colony 
of  Epidaurus,  and  the  Dalmatian  frontier. 

Hitherto  the  opportunities  of  intermixture  have 
been  but  slight.  With  that  part,  however,  of 
Albania  which  coincides  with  the  ancient  Epirus, 
rather  than  with  Southern  Illyria  the  case  is  dif- 
ferent. 

In  the  time  of  Pyrrhus  it  was  Hellenized,  and 
*  See  the  chapter  on  the  ethnology  of  Greece. 


20  THE    SKIPETAR. 

at  the  very  earliest  dawn  of  history  its  population 
was  modified  still  more  considerably.  By  whom  ? 
By  the  inhabitants  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Italy, 
whoever  they  were. 

This  is  as  much  as  is  necessary  to  say  about 
the  Skipetar  of  Albania  at  present.  They  are 
the  descendants  of  the  Southern  Illyrians  and 
the  ancient  Epirots — Chaonians,  Thesprotians, 
Molossians,  &c.  They  are  pure  in  blood,  as 
compared  with  nine-tenths  of  the  rest  of  Europe ; 
but  still  more  or  less  mixed,  the  chief  foreign 
elements  being  ancient  Italian,  Greek,  and 
Roman. 


CHAPTER  11. 

SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. — THE  EUSKALDUNAC,  OR  BASQUES. — THE 
IBERIAN  STOCK. THE  TURDETANIAN  CIVILIZATION.  —  PHOE- 
NICIAN — ROMAN VANDAL  — GOTHIC     ELEMENTS. KELTIBE- 

RIANS.— THE  ORIGINAL  KELTiE    IBERIANS. THE  WORD  KELTIC 

OF   IBERIAN    ORIGIN. — THE    ARAB    CONQUEST. — EXPULSION    OF 

THE    ARABS. THE   JEWS    OF    SPAIN. GIPSIES. — PHYSICAL  AND 

MORAL    CHARACTERISTICS    OF  THE    MODERN    SPANIARDS. POR- 
TUGAL. 

The  western  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees,  where 
France  and  Spain  join,  gives  us  a  locality  ren- 
dered famous  by  the  historical  events  of  San 
Sebastian,  and  the  legends  of  Fuenterabia,  with 
the  provinces  of  Beam  and  Gascony  on  the 
French,  and  Navarre  and  Biscay  on  the  Spanish, 
side  of  the  mountains.  Here  it  is  where,  although 
the  towns,  like  Bayonne,  Pampeluna,  and  Bilbao, 
are  French  or  Spanish,  the  country  people  are 
Basques  or  Biscayans — Basques  or  Biscayans  not  ' 
only  in  the  provinces  of  Biscay,  but  in  Alava, 
Upper  Navarre,  and  the  French  districts  of  La- 
bourd  and  Soule.  Their  name  is  Spanish  (the 
word  having  originated  in  that  of  the  ancient 
Vascones),   and  it  is  not  the  one  by  which  they 


22  THE   EUSKALDUNAC 

designate  themselves ;  though,  possibly,  it  is 
indirectly  connected  with  it.  The  native  name 
is  derived  from  the  root  Eush-;  which  becomes 
Eusk-ar«  when  the  language,  Eusk-^erna  when 
the  country,  and  'Eu.sk-aldunac  when  the  people 
are  spoken  of;  so  that  the  Basque  language  of  the 
Biscayans  of  Biscay  is,  in  the  vernacular  tongue, 
the  Euskara  of  the  Euskaldunac  of  Ensherria, 

It  is  not  for  nothing  that  this  difference  of 
form  has  been  indicated.  In  the  classical  writers 
we  find  more  than  one  of  the  old  Spanish  popula- 
tions mentioned  under  different  derivatives  from 
the  same  root,  and  sometimes  a  doubt  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  writer  in  whose  pages  it  occurs, 
as  to  whether  there  were  two  separate  popula- 
tions, or  only  one  denoted  by  two  synonymous 
names.  Thus,  side  by  side  with  the  Bast-w^i, 
we  find  the  Bast-i^awi,  and,  side  by  side  with  the 
Turd-M^i,  the  Turd-e^awi.  Now  respecting  these 
last,  Strabo  expressly  says  that  -  whether  they 
were  different  populations  under  the  same  name, 
or  the  same  under  different  ones  is  uncertain. 

That  the  Euskara  is  no  new  tongue  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  of  its  falling  into  dialects ; 
which  Humboldt  limits  to  three,  whilst  others 
extend  them  to  five  or  six. 

a.  The  Biscayan  proper  is  spoken  in  the  country 
of  the  ancient  Autrigones  and  Caristii,  and  it  has 
been  proposed  to  call  it  the  Autrigonian.     It  has. 


OR  BASQUES.  23 

less  correctly,  been  called  Cantahrian^  and  this  is 
the  name  which  the  national  taste  best  likes ;  for 
a  descent  from  the  indomitable  Cantabrian  that 
so  long  and  so  successfully  spurned  the  yoke  of 
Rome,  and  who  transmitted  the  same  spirit  and 
the  same  independence  to  the  Asturian,  is  cre- 
ditable enough  to  be  claimed.  Nor  is  the  claim 
unfounded  ;  since,  in  all  probability,  the  ancient 
Cantabria  included  some  of  the  ancestors  of  the 
Euskaldunac. 

h.  The  Guipuscoan  is  the  western  Biscayan. 

c.  The  Laburtanian  is  the  Euskarian  of  France, 
spoken  in  the  parts  about  St.  Jean  de  Luz ;  and 
which,  in  the  district  of  Soule,  is  supposed  to  fall 
into  a  sub-dialect. 

The  Euskarian  language  has  always  been  the 
standing  point  to  those  inquirers  who  have  argued 
backwards,  from  the  existing  state  of  things, 
towards  the  reconstruction  of  the  ethnology  and 
philology  of  antiquity;  first  and  foremost  of 
whom,  both  in  date  and  importance,  is  Wil- 
helm  von  Humboldt,  whose  essays  on  the  sub- 
ject form  two  of  the  most  classical  monographs 
in  comparative  philology.  The  method  he  em- 
ployed was  much  more  of  a  novelty  then  than 
now.  We  may  guess  what  it  was  beforehand.  It 
was  the  analysis  of  local  names.  In  this  he  was 
successful.  Roots  like  ast-,  ur-,  and  others,  found 
in  the  ancient  names  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 


24  THE    EUSKALDUNAC. 

localities,  far  beyond  the  present  pale  of  the 
Euskarian  tongue,  he  referred  to  the  Basque, 
and  found  them  significant  therein ;  thus  uria= 
town  or  cityf  and  ast=rock  or  mountain — whereby 
Asturias  means  the  mountainous  country,  and  As- 
tures  the  mountaineers. 

His  inference  was  (as  might  be  expected)  that 
the  Euskarian  was  as  little  a  modern  and  local 
tongue  as  the  Welsh ;  indeed,  that  it  was  so  far 
from  anything  of  the  kind,  as  to  be  one  of  the 
oldest  in  Europe,  and  not  only  old,  but  widely- 
spread  also.  The  whole  of  the  peninsula,  France 
as  far  as  the  Garonne  and  the  Rhone,  and  even 
portions  of  Italy,  were,  according  to  Humboldt, 
originally  Basque  ;  or,  as  it  is  more  conveniently 
called,  Iberic  or  Iberian,  from  the  ancient  name 
of  Spain — Iberia. 

So  that  now  we  talk  of  the  ancient  Vascones, 
Varduli,  Autrigones  and  Caristii  as  particular 
divisions  of  the  great  Iberic  stock,  under  their 
ancient  names,  the  Euskaldunac  being  the  same 
under  a  modern  one;  whilst  the  Basques  and 
Navarrese  are  Euskaldunac,  under  French  and 
Spanish  designations. 

The  present  Euskaldunacs  must  be  a  popula- 
tion of  as  pure  blood  as  any  in  Europe,  lineal 
descendants  from  the  Autrigones,  Varduli,  and 
Vascones,  and  closely  related  to  the  Asturians. 
At   any  rate    they  are  the  purest  blood   in   the 


THE    TURDETANI.  25 

Peninsula.  This  we  infer  from  their  language, 
and  the  mountaineer  ,  character  of  their  area. 
They  are  the  Welsh  of  Spain. 

With  the  pure  Euscaldunac  let  us  now  contrast 
the  most  mixed  portion  of  the  Peninsular  popu- 
lation ;  which  is  that  of  the  water-system  of  the 
Guadalquiver,  and  the  parts  immediately  south 
and  east  of  it — Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  Grenada, 
and  Murcia,  if  we  take  the  modern  provinces ;  the 
country  of  the  Turdetani  and  Bastitani,  if  we 
look  to  the  ancient  populations — Baetica,  if  we 
adopt  the  general  name  of  the  Romans,  Andalusia 
in  modern  geography. 

The  mountain-range  between  Jaen  and  Murcia, 
the  Sagra  Sierra,  was  originally  the  Mons  Oros- 
peday  a  fact  which  I  notice,  because  the  element 
-peda,  occurs  with  a  mere  difference  of  dialect  in 
the  ancient  name  of  the  mountains  of  Burgos, 
Idu-beda.  So  that  here,  if  nowhere  else,  we  have 
a  geographical  name  common  to  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  peninsula — an  Iberic  gloss 
in  two  distant  localities.  It  was  the  Iberians  of 
these  parts  who  were  the  first  to  receive  foreign 
intermixture,  and  the  last  to  lose  it,  the  Iberians 
of  the  Baetis,  or  Guadalquiver,  favoured  above  all 
other  nations  of  the  peninsula  in  soil,  in  climate, 
and  in  situation.  Strabo  expatiates  with  enthu- 
siasm almost  unbecoming  to  a  geographer,  on  their 
wealth,  their  industry,  their  commerce,  and  their 


26  THE   TURDETANI. 

civilization;  and  all  this  is  no  more  than  their 
physical  condition  prepares  us  to  expect.  Cities 
to  the  numher  of  two  hundred  and  upwards, 
docks,  anachyses  (or  locks),  lighthouses,  canals, 
salt  works,  mines,  agriculture,  woven  articles, 
fisheries,  an  alphabet,  and  a  literature  attest  the 
civilization  of  the  ancient  Turdetanians  as  known 
to  the  writers  of  the  reign  of  Augustus  ;  at  which 
time,  however,  the  country  was  so  Romanized 
that  the  Iberic  tongue  was  already  superseded  by 
the  Latin  throughout  the  whole  level  country; 
Cordova  and  Seville, — the  pre-eminently  Roman 
towns  of  Spain, — having  been  founded  by  picked 
bodies  of  Romans  and  natives.  Hence,  in  respect 
to  its  date,  the  Spanish  of  Andalusia  is  the  oldest 
daughter  of  the  Latin. 

But  the  Romans  were  as  little  the  first  in- 
truders who  introduced  foreign  blood  and  foreign 
ideas  into  Southern  Spain  as  they  were  the  last. 
Their  predecessors  were  the  Phoenicians — some- 
times direct  from  Tyre  and  Sidon,  oftener  from 
the  Tyrian  colony  of  Carthage.  It  was  through 
the  accounts  of  the  Phoenicians  that  the  earliest 
notices  of  Iberia  found  their  way  into  Greece ; 
it  was  through  the  Phoenicians  that  the  Hellenic 
poets  first  heard  of  the  columns  of  Hercules. 
It  was  through  the  Phoenician — Punic  or  Tyrian, 
as  the  case  might  be  —  that  the  mining  and 
commercial    industry   of   Turdetania    was   deve- 


THE    TUEDETANI.  27 

loped.  Through  them,  too,  probably  (but  not 
certainly)  came  the  alphabet.  I  say  probably ^ 
because  the  shape  of  the  letters  is  Greek  or 
Italian  rather  than  Phoenician.  As  the  Phoe- 
nician settlements  seem  to  have  been  factories 
rather  than  colonies,  and  as  their  marriages  must 
have  been  wdth  native  women,  their  influence 
was  moral  rather  than  physical,  i.e.,  they  intro- 
duced new  ideas  rather  than  new  blood.  Their 
contact  with  the  Turdetanians  may  be  spread 
over  some  seven  centuries — from  about  900  to 

200  B.C. 

New  ideas,  too,  rather  than  new  blood  was 
what  was  introduced  by  the  Romans ;  the  great 
change  which  they  efiected  being  that  of  the  lan- 
guage from  Iberic  to  Latin.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  by  no  means  safe  to  say  that  the  Turdetanian 
civilization  was  wholly  of  foreign  origin  —  half 
Roman  and  half  Phoenician.  The  inland  cities 
could  scarcely  be  the  latter.  Yet  they  existed 
when  Rome  first  began  its  conquests.  So  high 
do  I  put  either  the  actual  civilization  of  the 
southern  Iberians,  or  (what  is  nearly  the  same 
thing)  the  capacity  for  receiving  its  elements, 
that  I  doubt  whether  it  stands  on  a  lower  level 
than  that  of  Northern  Italy  itself  minus  its  geo- 
graphical advantages  of  contiguity  to  Greece. 
Their  remote  position  was  a  great  disadvantage, 
and  so  was   the  comparative  smallness  of  their 


28  GOTHS. 

sea-board,  arising  from  the  unindented  character 
of  the  peninsular  coast. 

Between  the  garrisons  of  Rome  and  Carthage 
we  may  safely  assume  some  intermixture  of 
native  African  blood — Numidian,  Gaetulian,  or 
Mauri tanian — Amazirgh,  Kabail,  or  Berber.  It 
is  safe,  too,  not  exactly  to  exclude  Greek  influ- 
ences from  Turdetanian  Iberia  altogether,  but  to 
hold  as  a  general  rule  that,  from  the  monopo- 
lizing character  of  the  Phoenician  commerce — 
especially  the  Carthaginian  branch  of  it  —  the 
Greek  and  Phoenician  influences  were  in  the  in- 
verse ratio  to  each  other. 

The  chief  negative  fact  connected  with  ancient 
Baetica  is,  that  none  of  its  geographical  locahties 
end  in  -briga,  a  remark,  of  which  we  shall  soon 
see  the  import. 

The  Roman  power  in  Spain  was  broken  by  those 
populations,  who  gave  to  Spain  the  important 
foreign  elements  of  the  fifth  century.  These  are 
said  to  be  the  Alans,  the  Vandals,  the  Suevi,  and 
the  Goths.  Concerning  the  first  of  these  there  is 
a  doubt.  The  true  Alani  were  a  people  from  the 
parts  between  the  rivers  Volga  and  Jaik  to  the 
north,  and  the  range  of  Caucasus  :to  the  south — 
people  whose  nearest  neighbours  were  the  Circas- 
sians and  Russians,  or,  at  any  rate,  their  ancient 
equivalents  :  people  whose  affinities  were  Asiatic ; 
and  whose  nearest  kinsmen  were  the  Huns,  the 


VANDALS   IN  SPAIN.  29 

Avars,  the  Khazars,  and  the  Turks.  Now  I  do 
not  say  that  the  presence  of  such  a  population  in 
Spain,  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  fifth  century 
(about  A.D.  408)  is  impossible  ;  perhaps,  indeed,  it 
is  probable.  The  Huns,  with  whom  the  Alans 
were  allied,  were  then  hanging,  like  a  cloud 
charged  with  thunder,  over  Europe,  about  to  carry 
carnage  and  desolation  as  far  westward  as  the  plains 
of  Champagne.  And  the  Alans  will  help  them. 
So  I  do  not  deny  that  they  may  have  invaded 
Spain.  I  remark,  however, — as  good  authorities 
have  done  before  me — that,  except  in  Spain,  the 
Suevi  are  almost  always  in  alliance  with  the 
Alemanni;  a  nation  with  a  name  so  like  that  of 
the  Alani,  as  for  confusion  to  be  likely.  Such 
confusion,  I  think,  existed  here :  in  other  words, 
I  believe  that  the  invaders  of  Spain  were  the 
Suevi  and  Alemanni — not  the  Suevi  and  Alani, 
If  the  view  be  wrong,  we  must  admit  an  inter- 
mixture— inconsiderable,  perhaps,  in  amount — of 
Turk  blood. 

The  Vandals — for  reasons  given  elsewhere — I 
believe  to  have  been  no  Germans  at  all,  but  Sla- 
vonians under  a  German  leader,  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  Serbs  of  Silesia  and  Lusatia:  since 
the  express  statement  of  Idatius  is  that  they 
were  Vandali  Silingi,  Now  the  Silingi  can  easily 
be  shown  to  have  been  the  old  Silesians.  The 
existence  of  Slavonic  blood  in  Spain  was  first  in- 


30  THE    GOTHS. 

dicated  by  the  present  writer  ;  and  as  Andal-usia 
took  its  name  from  the  Vandals  in  question,  the 
local  ethnologist  may  be  well  employed  in  seek- 
ing for  Slavonic  elements  in  a  quarter  where 
they  have  not  hitherto  been  suspected.  As  the 
Vandals,  too,  of  Andalusia  were  the  Vandals  of 
Genseric,  Gelimir,  and  the  kings  of  northern 
Africa,  it  must  be  Slavonic  rather  than  German 
blood,  which  is  not  unreasonably  supposed  to 
exist  amongst  some  of  the  mountaineers  of  Al- 
geria. Whether  the  Vandals  occupied  Anda- 
lusia to  the  comparative  exclusion  of  the  Goths 
is  uncertain. 

The  Suevi  of  Spain  must  have  been  but  little 
different  from  those  Burgundian  Germans  who 
conquered  Germany.  They  formed  part  of  the 
same  confederacy,  and  only  differed  from  their 
allies  in  proceeding  further  southwards. 

The  Goths  belonged  to  a  different  branch. 
Their  epoch  is  from  a.d.  412  to  a.d.  711.  As 
the  Gothic  empire  was  an  extension  from  that 
of  southern  Gaul,  Catalonia  may  be  the  province 
where  the  Gothic  blood  is  most  abundant.  Nie- 
buhr  considers  that  they  pressed  the  Suevi  before 
them  into  Portugal  and  Asturias. 

Two  other  elements  require  notice,  both  early, 
but  one  insignificant  in  amount,  and  the  other 
obscure  and  problematical;  the  Greek  and  the 
Keltic. 


THE    KELTS.  31 

From  Marseilles,  Greek  colonists  founded  Em- 
poria on  the  coast  of  Catalonia,  and  a  few  other 
places  of  less  importance. 

But  who  were  the  Keltce  of  Spain  ?  the  popu- 
lation whose  name  occurs  in  the  word  Celtici 
and  Celtiheri,  Keltic  Iberians^  or  Iberian  Kelts? 
Three  considerations  come  in  here. 

a.  First,  the  external  evidence,  or  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  authors  as  to  the  presence  of 
Kelts  in  Spain  and  Portugal. 

h.  Secondly,  the  internal  evidence  derived  from 
the  remains  of  language,  the  presence  of  certain 
customs,  and  physical  appearance. 

c.  The  a  priori  likelihood  or  unlikelihood  of  a 
Kelt-iheric  mixture. 

The  last  is  considerable. 

The  evidence  that  gives  us  Kelts  at  all  in  the 
Peninsula  gives  us  them  for  three-fourths  of  its 
area  ;  indeed,  Andalusia  is  the  only  part  wherein 
reasons  of  some  sort  or  other  for  their  presence, 
cannot  be  discovered.  We  find  traces  of  them  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Ebro,  the  Guadiana,  the  Tagus, 
and  the  Douro,  and  we  find  them  also  on  the 
high  central  table-lands  that  form  the  water-shed. 
Such  being  the  case,  what  must  be  our  view  of 
their  chronological  relations  to  the  Iberi  ?  Are 
they  the  older  occupants  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
or  the  newer  ?  If  the  newer,  the  displacement 
must  have  been  enormous.     If  the  older,  whence 


32  THE  KELTS. 

are  we  to  bring  the  Iberians  ?  So  great  are  the 
difficulties  of  this  alternative,  that  the  fact  itself 
requires  extraordinary  caution  before  we  admit 
it  at  all.  Let  us  deal  with  the  evidence  in  this 
cautious  spirit. 

The  external  evidence  is  clear  and  decisive. 
'  To  go  no  further  than  Strabo,  we  have  Kelts  in 
'the  north,  Kelts  between  the  Guadiana  and  the 
Douro,  and  Kelts  in  the  interior. 

At  the  head-waters  of  the  Guadiana,  Posido- 
nius  places  the  Keltiberians,  in  which  parts  they 
"increased  in  numbers,  and  made  the  whole  of 
the  neighbouring  country  Keltiberic.''  This  is 
the  country  on  each  side  of  the  Sierra  de  Toledo, 
or  New  Castile,  the  very  centre  of  Spain,  and,  as 
such,  an  unlikely  place  for  an  immigrant  popula- 
tion, whether  we  look  to  its  distance  from  the 
frontier,  or  to  its  mountainous  aspect.  They  are 
carried,  at  least,  as  far  north  as  the  mountains  of 
Burgos,  and  to  the  upper  waters,  of  the  Douro  on 
one  side,  and  the  Ebro  on  the  other.  So  that 
Old  Castile,  with  parts  of  Leon  and  Aragon,  may 
be  considered  as  Keltiberic.  This  is  the  first 
division. 

In  the  south  of  Portugal  comes  the  second,  i.^., 
in  Alemtejo,  or  the  parts  between  the  Tagus  and 
the  Guadiana.  Here  are  the  Celtici  of  the  clas- 
sical writers. 

The   third   section   is   found   in   the  north  of 


THE    KELTS.  3'3 

Portugal,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape 
Finisterre.  Here  Strabo  places  the  Artabri,  and 
close  to  them  Celtici  and  Turduli  of  the  same 
nation  with  those  of  the  south,  i.e,^  those  of 
Alemtejo.  His  language  evidently  suggests  the 
idea  of  a  migration.  Such  is  the  Keltic  area  as 
determined  by  external  evidence,  and  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  it  is  very  remarkable.  It  is  of 
considerable  magnitude,  but  very  discontinuous 
and  unconnected. 

The  internal  evidence  is  vi^holly  of  one  sort, 
viz.,  that  v^^hich  we  collect  from  the  names  of 
geographical  localities.  One  of  the  common  ter- 
minations in  the  map  of  ancient  Gaul  is  the 
word  'hriga  (as  in  'Ehuxo-hriga),  which  takes  the 
slightly  different  forms  of  -briva,  and  -brica — 
'Baudo-brica,  Samaio-briva.  Now  compounds  of 
-briga  are  exceedingly  common  in  Spain.  They 
occur  in  all  the  parts  to  which  Celtici  or  Celtiberi 
are  referred,  and  in  a  great  many  more  besides. 
Hence  the  internal  evidence — as  far,  at  least, 
as  the  compounds  in  -briga  are  concerned — gives 
us  a  larger  Keltic  area  (or  more  Keltiberians) 
than  the  testimony  of  authors  ;  indeed  it  gives  us 
the  whole  of  the  peninsula  except  Andalusia,  a 
fact  which  explains  the  import  of  a  previous  re- 
mark as  to  absence  of  compounds  ending  in  -briga 
south  of  the  Sierra  Morena.  It  is  rare,  too,  in 
Catalonia — perhaps  non-existent. 

D 


34  THE    KELTS. 

Tested,  however,  by  the  presence  of  the  form 
in  question,  Valentia  on  the  west,  and  all  Por- 
tugal (the  ancient  Lusitania)  on  the  east,  were 
Keltiberic — as  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  any 
map  of  ancient  Spain. 

But  there  are  serious  objections  to  the  usual 
inference  from  this  compound.  It  is  nearly  the 
only  geographical  term  of  which  the  form  is 
Keltic.  And  this  is  a  remarkable  instance  of 
isolation.  The  terminations  -durum,  -magus,  and 
-dunum,  all  of  which  are  far  commoner  in  Gaul 
than  even  -hriga  itself,  are  nowhere  to  be  found. 
Neither  are  the  Gallic  prefixes,  such  as  tre-, 
nant-,  ver-,  &c.  Hence,  it  is  strange  that,  if 
Spain  were  Keltic,  only  one  Keltic  form  should 
have  come  down  to  us.  Where  are  the  rest  ?  I 
am  inclined  to  believe  that  the  inference  as  to  such 
a  Spanish  name  as,  e,g.,  Talo-hriga,  being  Keltic, 
on  the  strength  of  such  undoubted  Gallic  words 
as  Woovo-briga,  is  no  better  than  the  assertion 
that  the  Jewish  name  Samp-50?i  was  in  the  same 
category  with  the  English  names  John-son  and 
Thomp-so?^  would  be.  Such  accidental  resem- 
blances are  by  no  means  uncommon.  The  ter- 
mination -dun  is  as  common  in  Keltic,  as  the 
termination  -tun  is  in  German.  Yet  they  are 
wholly  independent  formations.  At  the  same 
time  I  cannot  deny  that  the  internal  and  external 
evidence  partially  support  each  other. 


THE   KELTS.  S5 

But  there  is  another  series  of  facts  which  goes 
further  still  to  invalidate  the  belief  in  the  exist- 
ence of  Kelts  in  Spain.  It  is  this.  Instead  of 
the  Kelts  of  Iberia  having  been  Kelts  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  term,  the  Kelts  of  Gallia  were 
Iberians.  This  is  an  unfortunate  circumstance. 
Writers,  speakers,  journalists,  and  orators,  Rib- 
bonmen  and  Orangemen,  who  neither  know  nor 
care  much  about  the  Natural  History  of  Man, 
talk  about  the  Keltic  stock,  or  the  Keltic  race, 
with  a  boldness  and  fluency  that,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  antagonist  term  Anglo-Saxon,  we 
meet  with  nowhere  else.  To  read  some  of  the 
dissertations  on  Irish  misgovernment,  or  Welsh 
dissent,  one  might  fancy  that  an  American  of 
Pennsylvania  was  writing  about  the  aboriginal 
Indians,  or  the  enslaved  negroes — so  much  is 
there  made  of  race,  and  so  familiar  are  even 
the  non-ethnological  part  of  the  world  with  the 
term.  Men  know  this  when  they  know  nothing 
else. 

Great,  then,  is  the  actual  and  practical  cur- 
rency and  general  recognition  of  the  word ;  so 
great  that  its  historical  truth,  and  its  theoretical 
propriety  are  matters  of  indifierence.  Be  it 
ever  so  incorrect,  the  time  for  changing  it  has 
gone  by.  Nevertheless,  I  think  (nay,  I  am  sure) 
that  the  word  is  misapplied. 

I  think,  that  though  used  to  denominate  the 


36  THE   KELTS. 

tribe  and  nations  allied  to  the  Gauls,  it  was, 
originally,  no  Gallic  word — as  little  native  as 
Welsh  is  British. 

I  also  think  that  even  the  first  populations  to 
which  it  was  applied  were  other  than  Keltic  in 
the  modern  sense  of  the  term. 

I  think,  in  short,  that  it  was  a  word  belonging 
to  the  Iberian  language,  applied,  until  the  time 
of  Caesar  at  least,  to  Iberic  populations. 

The  name  came  from  the  Greeks  of  the  Gulf 
of  Lyons — the  Greeks  of  Massilia,  or  of  Emporia, 
more  probably  the  former.  Now,  as  there  is 
express  evidence  that  a  little  to  the  west  of 
Marseilles  the  Ligurian  and  Iberian  areas  met, 
the  likelihood  of  the  word  belonging  to  the  latter 
language  is  considerable. 

It  is  increased  by  the  circumstance  of  two- 
thirds,  if  not  more,  of  the  Keltic  portion  of 
Gaul  being  Iberian.  Posidonius  places  the  centre 
of  the  Keltic  country  in  Provence,  near  the  spot 
where  the  Roman  settlement  of  Narbo  was  built : 
an  Iberian  locality.  The  Kelts  of  Herodotus 
are  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city  called 
Pyrene;  a  word  which  carries  us  as  far  west- 
ward as  the  Pyrenees,  although  its  meaning  is 
different.  As  far  as  they  extended  beyond  the 
present  provinces  of  Roussillon  and  Languedoc, 
they  extended  westwards;  beyond — according  to 
Herodotus — the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  as  far 


THE   KELTS.  37 

as  the  frontier  of  the  extreme  Kynetae.  Aris- 
totle knew  the  true  meaning  of  the  word  Pyrene, 
i.e.,  that  it  denoted  a  range  of  mountains  ;  and 
he  also  called  Pyrene  "  a  mountain  of  Keltica." 
By  the  time  of  Caesar,  however,  a  great  number 
of  undoubted  Gauls  were  included  under  the 
name  Celtce:  in  other  words,  the  Iberian  name 
for  an  Iberian  population  was  first  adopted  by 
the  Greeks  as  the  name  for  all  the  inhabitants  of 
south-western  Gaul,  and  it  was  then  extended  by 
the  Romans  so  as  to  include  all  the  populations 
of  Gallia  except  the  Belgae  and  Aquitanians. 
The  word  Celtcs  also  passed  for  a  native  name — 
^Hpsorum  lingua  Celt^,  nostra  Galli  appellantur." 
Upon  this  Prichard  reasonably  remarks,  that 
Caesar  would  have  written  more  accurately  had 
he  stated  that  the  people  whom  the  Greeks  called 
KeXrat  were  Galli  in  the  eyes  of  a  Roman. 

But  the  Greek  form  for  Galli  is  TaX-araif  a 
form  suspiciously  like  KeXr-at.  I  admit  that  this 
engenders  a  difficulty,  since  it  shows  the  possi- 
bility of  the  two  words  being  the  same.  At  the 
same  time  it  can  be  explained.  The  ar  in 
TaX-aTai  is  non-radical.  It  is  the  sign  of  the 
plural  number,  as  it  is  in  Irish  at  the  present 
moment ;  whereas  the  t  in  KeXr-at  is  a  part  of 
the  root. 

And  now  I  have  given  the  additional  reason 
for  believing  that  the  so-called  Kelts  of   Spain 


38  THE  KELTS. 

were  no  Kelts  at  all  in  the  modern  sense  of  the 
word,  but  only  Iberians  ;  and  I  further  suggest 
the  likelihood  of  the  word  meaning  mountaineer, 
or  something  like  it,  in  which  case  the  Kelts  of 
South  Gaul  must  be  supposed  to  be  (as  they  are 
made  by  Herodotus  and  Aristotle)  the  Pyrenean 
Iberians,  the  Celtiberi  and  Celtici  being  also  the 
Highlanders  of  the  great  central  range  of  Spain, 
of  Gallicia,  and  of  Alemtejo.  This,  however,  is 
only  a  suggestion. 

Perhaps  the  point  is  not  very  important. 
Whether  we  look  to  the  amount  of  their  ci- 
vilization, to  their  national  temper  as  shown 
in  the  defence  of  their  independence,  or  to  the 
extent  to  which  they  contributed  to  the  Kte- 
rature  of  the  Latin  language,  there  are  no 
very  striking  differences  between  the  Gaul  and 
the  Iberian.  Personal  heroes  like  Viriathus  and 
Vercingetorix  occur  on  both  sides  ;  whilst  Gaul 
resisted  Caesar  by  instances  of  endurance  behind 
stone  walls  scarcely  inferior  to  the  display  of 
obstinate  valour  at  Numantia. 

The  Gothic  conquest  of  Spain  was  succeeded, 
in  the  eighth  century,  by  one  of  equal,  perhaps, 
greater,  importance.  The  line  it  took  was  from 
south  to  north  ;  so  that  its  direction  was  different 
from  that  of  the  Goths.  It  was  also  made  by  a 
southern  population.  The  Arabs  who  effected 
the  first  invasion  under  Musa,  were  the    Arabs 


I 


THE   ARABS.  39 


an  army ;  i.e.,  almost  wholly  males  ;  probably, 
too,  they  were  pretty  pure  in  blood.  Afterwards, 
however,  larger  swarms  came  over  from  Africa ; 
and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that,  along  with  these 
there  were  females  and  families  of  mixed  African 
as  well  as  of  pure  Arab  descent.  The  areas 
which  were  successively  appropriated  by  these 
invaders  are  not  exactly  those  that  we  expect, 
a  priori.  Murcia,  or  the  March,  was  less  modi- 
fied by  the  conquest  than  Valencia  and  other 
countries  northwards.  It  was  held  in  a  sort  of 
imperfect  independence  by  Theodemir,  and  under 
the  name  of  Tadmor,  into  which  that  of  the 
Gothic  king  was  metamorphosed  by  the  Arabs, 
long  continued  to  be  the  most  Gothic  part  of 
south-eastern  Spain. 

In  contrast  to  Grenada,  and  in  consonance 
with  what  we  expect  from  their  geographical 
position,  were  the  northern  provinces  of  Asturias, 
Biscay,  Navarre,  and  Galicia— Galicia,  in  respect 
to  its  ethnology,  belonging  almost  as  much  to 
Portugal  as  to  Spain.  Into  Asturias  the  arms 
of  the  Arab  conqueror  never  penetrated  :  so  that 
the  original  nationality  was  preserved  in  the 
kingdom  of  Oviedo,  under  the  successors  of  Pe- 
lagius  or  Pelayo.  Were  these  brave  and  inde- 
pendent mountaineers  Goths  or  Romans?  or 
were  they  original  Iberians  ?  And  if  of  mixed 
blood,  in  what  proportion  were  the  different  ele- 


40  THE  ASTURIANS   OF   PELAGIUS. 

ments  ?  They  seem  to  have  been  second  in 
purity  of  blood  to  the  true  and  Proper  Basques 
only.  They  were  somewhat  more  Romanized 
than  the  latter,  as  is  shown  by  their  language ; 
but  both  were  equally  free  of  Gothic  admixture. 
This  view  rests  partly  on  the  previous  details  of 
their  history,  and  partly  on  the  names  of  the  kings 
who  succeeded  Pelayo.  They  are  not  Gothic, 
like  Euric,  Wallia,  or  Roderic,  nor  yet  Latin, 
like  Pedro ;  but  truly  and  properly  Spanish  (with 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  Frivila),  as  Alonzo, 
Ordonio,  Sancho,  &c. ;  Spanish  in  the  same  way 
that  Edward  and  Richard  are  German,  or  Arthur 
and  Owen,  Keltic.  Pacheco,  perhaps,  is  the 
truest  Iberian  designation.  It  occurs  in  Caesar, 
as  Paciecus.  "When  the  Arabs  conquered  Spain, 
their  peculiar  civilization  was  but  partially  de- 
veloped. It  grew  up,  to  a  great  degree,  within 
Spain  itself. 

The  Arab  elements  belonged  to  the  same  class 
with  the  Phoenician,  though  to  a  different  section 
of  it.  So  did  the  Jewish,  which  were  introduced 
earlier,  and,  if  not  of  equal  amount,  were,  at 
least,  of  longer  duration.  The  Jews  brought 
with  them  the  oldest  civilization  in  the  world. 
But  they  were  important  physical  influences  as 
well.  They  came  with  their  families,  and,  conse- 
quently, were  less  thrown  upon  the  necessities  of 
intermixture  than  the  majority  of  the  Arabs.   The 


THE  JEWS — JfORMANS.  41 

intermixture,  however,  was  in  both  cases  consider- 
able. As  long  as  the  Arian  kings  of  the  Gothic 
stock  held  their  sway,  the  Israelite  was  tolerated 
and  something  more.  His  industry  was  pro- 
tected, and  his  earlier  familiarity  with  letters  and 
the  civilizing  influences  of  commerce  respected. 
The  prejudices  against  intermixture  were  chiefly 
on  his  side.  Orthodoxy,  however,  introduced 
persecution.  Some  of  its  earliest  enactments 
forbid  Christian  wives  and  Christian  mistresses 
to  Jews,  a  sure  proof  of  the  previous  prevalence 
of  an  opposite  custom.  In  the  Mahometan  parts 
of  the  Peninsula,  the  toleration  was  considerable 
throughout.  Lastly  must  be  noticed  the  great 
extent  to  which  the  pride  in  his  real  or  supposed 
purity  of  blood  characterizes  the  Hidalgo.  This 
would  not  have  been  the  case  if  purity  of  blood 
were  the  rule,  and  an  Arab  or  Jewish  cross  the 
exception.  The  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
was  signalized  by  the  double  ejection  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Peninsula  in  general,  and  the  Arabs 
from  their  last  possession,  the  kingdom  of  Gre- 
nada. Such  ejectments  are  never  complete. 
Each,  however,  of  these  was  one  of  remarkable 
magnitude. 

The  Normans,  who  settled  on  so  many  of  the 
coasts  of  southern  Europe,  made  a  smaller  im- 
pression on  the  Iberian  peninsula  than  elsewhere. 
Still  they  must  be  recognised  as  an  element. 


42  ANDALUSIANS,  ETC. 

Such  is  the  basis  of  the  Spanish  stock,  and 
such  the  chief  superadded  elements — Iheric  in  the 
first  instance :  then  Phoenician,  Greek,  Roman, 
Gothic,  Vandal,  Alan  (?),  Jewish,  Arab,  and 
Norman,  to  say  nothing  about  the  cases  of  French 
and  other  settlers  from  the  modern  kingdoms  of 
Europe.  These  elements  are  differently  distri- 
buted over  the  several  provinces;  and  at  the 
present  moment  each  has  some  pecuhar  charac- 
teristics. 

The  most  regular  features,  and  the  most  purely 
brunette  complexions  are  found  in  Andalusia, 
conjoined  with  a  gay,  pleasure -loving  disposition; 
not  given  to  the  sterner  virtues,  but  with  con- 
siderable intellectual  capacity,  as  shown  both  in 
art  and  literature  ;  and,  in  Andalusia,  the  foreign 
elements  are  at  their  maximum^chie^j  oriental, 
but  partly  (in  the  belief,  at  least,  of  the  present 
writer)  Slavonic.  Yet  it  is  not  safe  to  refer  the 
one  to  the  other.  The  soil  and  climate  of  Anda- 
lusia— the  favoured  valley  of  the  most  southern 
river  in  Spain — have  also  their  peculiarities. 

In  Grenada  the  habits  are  ruder,  and  Gre- 
nada is  chiefly  a  mountain  range. 

Murcia*  has  the  credit  of  being  the  Boeotia  of 

*  In  these  notices  of  the  characteristics  of  the  different 
Spanish  districts,  provinces,  or  kingdoms,  I  follow  the  "  Hand- 
hook  for  Spain/' — a  work  well  known  to  he,  for  its  kind,  of 
more  than  ordinary  value. 


VALEIfAANS,   ETC.  43 


||^^)ain.  It  has  less  than  its  share  of  Arab, 
and,  perhaps,  a  considerable  amount  of  Gothic, 
blood. 

Valencia  has  been  unfavourably  described  ;  the 
physiognomy  of  its  population  being  the  most 
Moorish  in  Spain,  and  the  temper  dangerous.  It 
was  from  Valencia  that  the  last  branch  of  Arabs 
was  expelled  in  the  reign  of  Philip  III. — the 
Little  Moors  or  Moriscoes.  Orientals  as  they 
were,  the  nobles  to  whom  they  were  serfs,  and 
whose  land  they  cultivated,  could  ill  afford  to 
lose  them.  Contrary  to  what  we  expect  from 
their  stock,  they  were  signalized  by  steady  in- 
dustry and  perseverance  in  agriculture.  The 
present  language  of  Valencia  is  only  Spanish  so 
far  as  it  is  spoken  in  the  Spanish  peninsula.  It 
is  a  distinct  tongue  from  the  Castilian ;  yet  not 
French.  It  belongs  to  the  Proven9al  class — 
called  also  Limousin. 

It  is  the  same  with  Catalonia ;  the  least  Iberic, 
the  least  Arab,  but,  perhaps,  the  most  Roman, 
and  the  most  Gothic  of  all  the  Spanish  provinces 
— Cat-alonia  or  Goth-land — commercial,  manu- 
facturing, and  radical,  with  a  political  history  of 
its  own,  and,  for  a  time,  an  independent  line  of 
sovereigns — the  Berengarii. 

In  respect  to  language,  the  standard  Spanish  is 
that  of  the  Castiles;  and  it  is  upon  the  Castilians 
that  our  usual  notions  of  a  Spaniard  are  founded. 


44  CASTILIANS,   ETC. 

Decorous,  reserved,  and  unenterprising,  the  occu- 
pant of  a  misplaced  metropolis,  and  of  an  arid 
table-land,  which,  for  the  most  part,  is  too  much 
a  mountain  for  agricultural,  and  too  little  of  one 
for  mining  industry,  he  is  a  type  of  the  third 
variety  of  the  Iberic  stock — the  Andalusian  and 
Catalonian  being  the  other  tvs^o. 

In  the  fourth,  the  mountaineer-character,  v^^ith 
its  usual  spirit  of  independence,  rude  manners, 
and  hardy  mode  of  life,  which  attains  its  height  in 
Navarre  and  Biscay,  is  shared  in  different  degrees 
by  the  Galicians,  Asturians,  northern  Arrago- 
nese,  and  the  Spaniards  of  Leon  ;  the  physical 
appearance  changing  from  dark  to  light,  and  from 
a  regular  contour  to  coarse  angular  features,  with 
high  cheek-bones.  In  Galicia,  a  province  of 
hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water,  this  is 
most  remarkable.  In  Biscay,  the  comparative 
lightness  of  complexion  has  engendered  the  idea 
of  a  Norman  intermixture. 

Though  it  would  be  a  dangerous  overstatement 
to  say  that  descent,  pedigree,  blood,  or  extraction 
go  for  nothing,  we  cannot  consider  the  nature 
of  the  Spanish  national  character  in  general,  as 
exhibited  in  the  development  of  its  science,  art, 
literature,  social  institutions,  and  in  its  moral  and 
material  influence  upon  the  history  of  the  world, 
without  seeing  that  many  of  the  leading  features 
of  the  drama  that  the  Spaniards  have  played  upon 


CASTILIANS,   ETC.  45 

the  theatre  of  both  the  Old  and  New  "World  are 
referable  to  the  effect  of  external  circumstances 
— circumstances  which,  in  our  inability  to  work 
out  the  details  of  cause  and  effect,  we  must 
be  content  to  call  accidental.  Who  so  likely 
to  be  isolated  in  the  character  of  their  literature, 
and  deficient  in  comprehensiveness  of  thought, 
as  the  nation  with  the  smallest  sea-board  and  the 
most  extreme  geographical  position  in  Europe  ? 
Who  so  probable  to  have  spread  their  language 
over  half  America  as  the  same  ?  Who  so  fit  to  be 
good  Catholics  as  the  favoured  of  the  Pope,  the 
authorized  converters  of  the  heathen  Indians,  and 
the  people  whose  national  life  was  a  crusade 
against  the  Mahometan  on  their  ovm  soil  ?  Who, 
too,  so  born  to  the  pride  of  purity  of  blood  ? 
There  is  much  to  account  for  all  this,  with  which 
descent  has  nothing  to  do,  although,  perhaps, 
there  is  more  than  the  explanation  of  all  this  ac- 
counts for. 

A  ballad  literature,  rising  to  the  level  of  the 
humbler  epics,  and  a  truly  home-grown  drama, 
are  the  self -evolved,  indigenous  elements  of 
Spanish  literature.  Their  material  influences  are 
to  be  found  in  the  histories  of  America,  the 
Indies,  the  Philippines,  Micronesia,  Italy,  and 
the  Mediterranean  Islands. 

Portugal  is  Spain  with  a  difference.  More 
purely  Iberic,  and  less  Phoenician,  from  the  first. 


46  PORTUGAL. 

it  was  also  less  Roman,  less  Arab,  and  very 
slightly  Gothic.  In  Africa  and  India  its  in- 
fluence has  been  greater,  in  America  somewhat 
less  than  that  of  Spain.  The  extent  to  which 
the  physical  and  moral  characteristics  of  the  Ga- 
licians  and  Estremadurans  are  intermediate  and 
transitional,    I   am   unable   to  state. 

*iit>  ^  SiA  SlA 

IT  '7^  ^  vJP 

A  refinement  upon  the  doctrine  of  the  Keltae 
having  been  Iberian,  and  of  the  Celtiberi  having 
been  no  Kelts  at  all,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the 
term,  will  be  found  when  we  come  to  the  ethno- 
logy of  Ireland.  It  consists  in  the  possibility  of 
one  or  both  having  been  Gaels — Kelts,  it  is  true, 
but  not  Kelts  in  the  sense  given  to  the  word  by 
the  ancients. 


( 


CHAPTER  III. 

FRANCE. — IBERIAN    BLOOD    IN   GAUL    AS   WELL   AS    THE    SPANISH 

PENINSULA. — IBERIANS  OF   GASCONY,  ETC. LIGURIANS. — HOW 

•     FAR  KELTIC. — BODENCUS. — INTERMIXTURE. — ROMAN,  GERMAN, 
.     ARAB. ALSATIA.  —  LORRAINE. FRANCHE-COMTE.  BUR- 
GUNDY,    SOUTHERN,     WESTERN,    AND    NORTHERN     FRANCE.  

CHARACTER   OF    THE    KELTS. THE   ALBIGENSIAN    CRUSADE. — 

BELGIUM. — ITS  ELEMENTS. KELTIC,  GERMAN,   AND    ROMAN. — 

SWITZERLAND. — HELVETIA. — ROMANCE,  FRENCH,  AND  GERMAN 
LANGUAGES. 

It  is  convenient  to  take  the  ethnology  of 
France  next  in  order  to  that  of  Spain,  because 
we  have  already  seen  that,  when  we  examine  the 
earliest  populations  of  the  two  countries  we  shall 
find  that  the  Iberic  stock  was  common  to  the 
two.  Although  I  find  no  Gauls  in  Iberia,  the 
Iberians  in  ancient  Gaul  were  numerous  ;  indeed, 
they  occur  in  Gascony  and  Beam  at  the  present 
moment. 

The  predominant  stock,  however,  of  Gallia,  as 
is  well-known,  is  the  Keltic,  still  existing,  along 
with  its  ancient  language,  and  other  character- 
istics in  Brittany. 

The   Iberians   belonged   chiefly,    though    not 


48  IBERIANS   OF   GAUL. 

wholly  and  exclusively,  to  Aquitania.  In  the 
reign  of  Augustus  this  term  denoted  a  political, 
in  that  of  Julius  CaBsar,  an  ethnological  area. 
The  province  reached  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the 
Loire ;  the  Aquitania  of  the  true  Aquitani  from 
the  Pyrenees  to  the  Garonne. 

In  the  present  towns  of  Bazas,  Eauze,  and 
Auch,  we  have  the  names  of  the  ancient  Yas-ates, 
'Elus-ateSf  and  Ausci ;  besides  which,  the  Soci- 
ates,  the  Taxus-ateSf  the  Garumni,  the  Biger- 
riones,  the  Preciani,  the  Gaxi-tes,  the  Sahuz-ates, 
the  Cocos-ates  the  Ijectoi-ates,  and  the  Tarbelli 
occupied  the  present  provinces  pf  Gascony  and 
Beam  in  general.  It  is  usual  to  say  that  these 
names  are  Iberian.  This  is  scarcely  the  case. 
The  remarkable  peculiarity  of  them  is  as  follows  : 
the  termination  -at  is  Gallic,  and  probably  the 
sign  of  the  plural  number,  whilst  the  radical  part 
is  not  evidently  Gallic,  and,  probably,  not  Gallic 
at  all;  or  (changing  the  expression)  whilst  the 
Gallic  inflexion  is  common  amongst  the  old  names 
of  Gascony,  the  Gallic  roots  {-magus,  tre-,  con-, 
&c.)  are  rare  ;  from  which  I  infer  that  the  geo- 
graphical nomenclature  of  south-western  France 
was  Iberic  in  respect  to  its  roots,  but  Gallic  in 
respect  to  its  form ;  so  that  the  words  in  question 
are  Iberic  names  taken  from  Gallic  informants. 
Nothing,  however,  of  great  importance  depends 
on  this. 


THE    LIGURIANS.  49 

In  the  parts  about  Baignerres  there  was  a 
Roman  colony,  that  of  the  Convenae ;  partly 
Gallic,  partly  Iberic,  and  partly  Legionary.* 

As  were  Gascony  and  Beam,  so  were  Rousillon 
and  the  greater  part  of  Languedoc — Iberic ;  for 
the  Iberi  extended  to  the  Rhone. 

Along  the  frontier  of  the  Iberian  area  there 
was  certainly  intermixture  between  the  Aquita- 
nians  and  the  true  Gauls,  and  there  were  also 
Gallic  settlements,  such  as  Hehro-magus,  within 
the  Iberian  area  itself.  Nevertheless,  Southern 
Gaul  was  Northern  Spain,  and  Northern  Spain 
Southern  Gaul. 

Provence  and  Dauphine  differ  from  Gascony 
and  Languedoc  in  having  had  a  Ligurian  rather 
than  an  Iberian  substratum;  in  having  received 
Roman  influences  earlier  and  more  largely,  in 
having  been  the  area  of  the  Phocaean  colony  of 
Massilia,  or  Marseilles,  in  and  around  which  city 
there  must  have  been  a  notable  tincture  of  Greek 
blood. 

Who  were  the  Ligurians  ? 

The  Phocasan  Greeks  founded  the  colony  of 
Marseilles ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  the  parts 
along  the  coast,  and  to  some  distance  inland,  be- 
came   imperfectly   known.      When   Prometheus 

*  I  prefer  this  word  to  Romany  because  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  because  a  settlement  was  made  by  a  Legion  or  a 
part  of  one,  it  was  therefore  Roman. 

E 


50  THE  LIGURIANS. 

gives  to  Hercules  the  details  of  his  travels  west- 
wards, he  says  that,  "  You  "  (Hercules)  "  shall 
reach  the  fearless  people  of  the  Ligyes,  where, 
with  all  your  bravery,  you  shall  find  no  fault 
with  their  warlike  vigour.  It  is  ordained  that 
you  shall  leave  your  arrows  behind.  But  as  all 
the  country  is  soft,  you  shall  be  unable  to  find  a 
stone.  Then  Zeus  shall  see  you  in  distress,  and 
pity  you,  and  overshadow  the  land  with  a  cloud, 
whence  a  storm  of  round  stones  shall  rain  down. 
With  these  you  shall  easily  smite  and  pursue  the 
army  of  the  Ligyes."  Such  is  the  gist  of  a  quo- 
tation from  a  writer  so  early  ^s  ^schylus,  in 
his  drama  of  the  "Prometheus  Unbound,"  as 
given  by  Strabo. 

These  Ligyes  are  the  Ligurians,  better  known 
as  a  people  of  Italy,  and  as  the  coastmen  of  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa.  Southwards  and  eastwards  they 
extended  as  far  as  the  Arno,  and  westwards  to 
the  Rhone ;  where  (as  already  stated)  they  came 
in  contact  with  the  Iberians.  So  that  the  ancient 
Ligurians  were  a  population  common  to  both 
Gaul  and  Italy,  just  as  the  Iberians  were  common 
to  Gaul,  and  Spain.  Herodotus  places  Marseilles 
in  the  country  of  the  Ligyes. 

The  fact  of  this  tract  being  known  so  much 
earher  than  the  interior  of  Gaul,  known  too  to 
the  Greeks  who  first,  and  more  than  others,  used 
the  term  Kelt,  confirms  the  view  of  its  wow-Gallic 


THE    LIGURIANS.  51 

origin.  At  any  rate,  it  makes  it  either  Iberian  or 
Ligurian,  and,  consequently,  only  so  far  Keltic 
(in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term)  as  the  Ligurians 
were  Keltce. 

This  is  the  point  now  under  notice.  I  think 
that  the  Ligurians  were  Kelts. 

In  the  first  place,  the  name  seems  to  have  a 
meaning  in  the  Keltic  tongue;  since  Prichard 
suggests  that  it  may  have  been  derived  from 
Llygwyr^^  which  means  in  Welsh  coastman. 

In  my  mind  it  is  a  native  name  also  ;  a  point  upon 
which  Prichard  expresses  a  doubt,  since  he  writes 
that,  "it  does  not  prove  that  the  people  were 
Kelts,  since  the  designation  is  one  more  likely  to 
have  been  bestowed  upon  them  by  a  neighbour- 
ing tribe  than  assumed  by  themselves."  Who, 
however,  could  have  bestowed  it?  Scarcely  any 
population  of  the  interior,  since  it  is  Greeks  from 
whom  we  get  it,  and  the  coast  was  the  part  with 
which  they  were  chiefly  acquainted.  Had  the 
name  been  a  late  one,  and  derived  from  Roman 
sources.  Dr.  Prichard's  inference  would  have  been 
legitimate.  As  it  is,  however,  we  have  nothing 
but  Ligurians  and  Iberians  from  the  Pyrenees  to 
the  Arno,  and  as  it  cannot  be  both  Iberic  and 
Keltic  {in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word),  it  must, 
if  Keltic,  be  Ligurian. 

*  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  say  that  Llocgyr  was  tlie 
Welsh  name  of  the  supposed  maritime  parts  of  England. 


52  THE   LIGURIANS. 

Against  it  lies  the  evidence  of  Strabo,  who 
separates  the  Ligyes  from  the  Kelts  as  a  distinct 
race  ;  differing,  however,  but  little  from  the  Kelts 
in  their  mode  of  life.  Now  with  this  qualification, 
and  with  the  belief  that  the  Kelts  whom  he  con- 
trasted with  the  Ligyes  were,  to  a  great  extent, 
Iberian,  I  lay  but  little  stress  on  the  evidence  of 
Strabo. 

Against  it,  also,  in  the  eyes  of  more  than  one 
good  writer,  is  a  very  questionable  etymology  ; 
which  I  will  give  in  full,  as  a  lesson  of  caution. 
Pliny  says  that  the  river  Po  in  the  Ligurian 
language  was  called  Bodencus,  or  bottomless, 
Pricliard  suggests,  in  a  note,  that  the  true  read- 
ing may  have  been  Boden-\o&,  and  asks  whether 
anybody  will  venture  hence  to  conjecture  that 
the  Ligurians  were  Germans  ?  Sir  Francis  Pal- 
grave,  taking  Prichard's  suggestion  as  a  bona  fide 
reading,  does  this ;  and  that  with  a  great  degree 
of  confidence.  Yet  the  termination  -nc  is  found 
in  the  country  of  the  Allobroges,  or  Dauphine, 
e.g.^  J^em-incum^  Durot-iwcwm,  Ysip-incum,  and  is 
also  Gallic,  e.g.,  Aged-incum,  It  is  British  as 
well — Hahitei-ncum, 

The  reasons,  then,  against  the  Keltic  origin  of 
the  Ligurians  are  thus  exceptionable.  Yet  those 
in  favour  of  it  are  weak.  One  thing,  however, 
they  must  have  been  :  a.  Kelts  ;  b,  Iberians  ;  or  c. 
members  of  a  wholly  new,  and  now  extinct,  stock. 


GAULS.  53 

I  incline  to  the  first  of  these  views  rather  than  the 
second,  and  the  second  rather  than  the  third.  At 
the  same  time,  they  were  a  well-marked  variety  ; 
otherwise  the  Romans  would  not  so  invariably 
have  separated  them  from  the  Gauls  of  both 
Gaul  and  Italy. 

The  primary  population,  then,  of  Gaul  (sup- 
posing the  Ligurians  to  have  been  Keltic)  was  of 
a  twofold  character  : — 

1.  Iberic,  in  Aquitania,  and 

2.  Keltic  (in  the  modern  sense  of  the    term) 
sewhere  —  the   Keltic   falling  into  three  divi- 

lons :  — 

a.  The  Belgic— 

/9.  The  proper  Gallic — 

7.  The  Ligurian  (?). 

The  history  of  the  displacement  and  intermix- 
ture is  complex.  Along  the  Ibero-Gallic  fron- 
tier, or  in  the  parts  north  of  the  Garonne,  and 
west  of  the  Rhone,  there  must  have  been  small 
and  partial  quarrels,  sufiicient  to  create  intermix- 
ture, and  a  gradual  change  of  the  boundaries  from 
the  earliest  times.  Perhaps,  too,  it  may  be  added 
that  the  Gauls  encroached  on  the  Iberians  rather 
than  the  Iberians  on  the  Gauls. 

Along  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  or  the  Germano- 
Gallic  frontier,  there  was  the  same  mutual  en- 
croachment, but  to  a  far  greater  degree,  and  the 
wars,  of  which  the  conquest  of  Ariovistus  is  a 


54  FRANCE. 

sample,  introduced  German,  and,  perhaps  Sla- 
vonic blood  into  Gaul  in  more  quarters  than  one. 

At  present — 

Alsatia  contains  the  least  amount  of  Keltic 
blood  of  all  the  provinces  of  France,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  German  in  language,  and  French  in  respect 
to  its  political  relations  only.  The  fifth  century 
is  the  date  of  its  conquest,  and  it  was  by  Ger- 
mans of  the  High  German  division  from  Suabia 
and  Franconia  that  it  was  reduced.  Before  this 
it  was  Romanized.  What  was  it  before  its  re- 
duction by  Rome  ?  Many  at  once  answer  "  Ger- 
man," because  its  occupants  were  the  Triboci, 
whom  Tacitus  calls  "  kaud  duhie  GermaniJ'  For 
reasons  given  elsewhere,*  I  believe  that  they  were 
Germanized  Gauls  rather  than  true  Germans. 

Lorraine,  originally  Keltic,  and  afterwards 
Romano-Keltic,  is  less  German  than  Alsatia,  but 
more  so  than  Champagne.  Its  name,  Hloth- 
ringen,  is  German.  I  cannot,  however,  say 
whether  the  German  blood  in  Lorraine  was  intro- 
duced from  the  north  or  from  the  south ;  by  the 
High  Germans  of  Alsatia  and  Franche-Comte, 
or  the  Low-Germans  of  Clovis. 

In  Franche-Comte  the  particular  descent  is 
from  the  Sequani,  the  tribe  which,  of  all  others 
equally  far  from  the  German  frontier,  was  most 

*  "  Taciti  Germania,  with  Ethnological  Notes"  §.  on  the 
Quasi-Germanic  Gauls. 


BURGUNDY.  55 

Germanized.  For  when  Cassar  was  in  Gaul,  the 
Sequani  called  in  the  Suevi  and  Marcomanni  of 
Ariovistus,  and  gave  up  one-third  of  their  land  as 
the  price  of  his  tyrannical  protection.  Now  the 
army  of  Ariovistus  was  mixed,  and  there  is  reason 
for  believing  that  even  Slavonians  were  to  be  found 
in  it.  At  any  rate  it  infused  German  blood  into 
the  Sequani  more  than  into  their  neighbours. 
The  process,  however,  of  Romanizing  went  on 
all  the  same,  until  the  fifth  century,  when  the 
invasion  that  gave  their  names  to  the  present  pro- 
vince and  to  Burgundy  took  place.  From  which 
time  forwards  the  ethnology  of  Franche-Comte, 
or  the  country  of  the  Franks,  is  that  of — 

Burgundy. — Here  the  Kelts  were  the  Sequani, 
and  the  Germans,  certain  High-Germans  of  Fran- 
conia.  Sir  James  Stephen,  in  his  valuable  "  Lec- 
tures on  the  History  of  France/'  draws  a  broad 
distinction  between  the  German  blood  introduced 
by  the  Burgundians,  and  the  German  blood  in- 
troduced by  the  Franks  of  Clovis ;  exaggerating, 
however,  in  my  mind,  the  rudeness  of  the  latter, 
as  well  as  the  cultivation  of  the  former.  Speak- 
ing of  the  Germany  of  Tacitus,  he  says,  that  it 
better  suited  the  author  to  "  pourtray  the  more 
striking  characteristics  of  the  Teutonic  tribes  col- 
lectively, than  to  investigate  the  more  minute 
peculiarities  which  distinguished  them  from  each 
other.     Yet  we  cannot  doubt  that,  even  in   his 


56  BURGUNDY. 

day,  they  were  far  more  widely  discriminated  in 
fact,  than  in  his  delineation  of  them,  as,  beyond 
all  controversy,  they  were  so  in  the  age  of  Clovis. 

"Thus,  for  example,  the  Burgundians,  before 
their  irruption  to  Gaul,  were  remarkable  for 
their  skill  as  artizans ;  and  in  the  poems  in 
which,  not  long  after  that  event,  they  were  de- 
scribed by  Sidonius  ApoUinaris,  we  have  the 
best  attestation  of  their  resemblance  to  the  kind 
and  simple-hearted  German  of  our  own  days. 
Thus  also  the  Gothic  people,  almost  immediately 
after  their  settlement  in  Aquitaine,  manifested  a 
singular  aptitude  for  a  yet  higher  civilization. 
For,  if  St.  Jerome  was  correctly  informed, 
Ataulph  their  king  seriously  projected  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  new  Gothic  for  the  old  Roman 
empire ;  a  scheme  in  which  the  character  of 
Julius  was  to  be  ascribed  to  Alaric,  that  of 
Augustus,. being  reserved  for  the  projector  him- 
self. Euric,  the  successor  of  Ataulph,  filled  his 
court  at  Toulouse  with  rhetoricians,  poets,  and 
grammarians ;  and  coveted  (and  not  altogether  in 
vain)  the  applause  of  the  Italian  critics  for  the 
pure  Latinity  of  his  despatches. 

"  The  Franks,  on  the  other  hand,  were  a  bar- 
barous people,  and  their  history  is  in  fact  a 
barbaric  history.  At  their  entrance  into  Gaul 
they  were  worshippers  of  Odin,  and  believed  that 
the  gates  of  the  Walhalla  rolled  back  spontane- 


BURGUNDY.  57 

msly  on  their  hinges  to  admit  the  warrior  who 
id  dyed,  with  the  blood  of  his  enemies,  the 
)attle-field  on  which  he  had  himself  fallen.  From 
kheir  settlements  on  the  lower  Rhine  they  had 
jometimes  marched  to  the  defence  of  the  Ro- 
mano-Gallic province,  but  more  frequently  and 
gladly  to  the  invasion  of  it.  Their  appetite  for 
rapine  was  insatiate,  unrestrained,  and  irresistible. 
In  war  they  were  the  prototypes  of  the  Norman 
pirates  of  a  later  age,  or  of  the  West  Indian  buc- 
caneers of  more  modern  times.  In  peace  they 
were  the  very  counterpart  of  the  North  American 
Indians,  as  depicted  by  the  early  travellers  in 
Canada ;  a  comparison  which  almost  every  com- 
mentator on  Tacitus  has  instituted  and  verified." 
Now  I  have  great  doubts  about  the  superior 
civilization  of  the  conquerors  of  Burgundy,  Al- 
satia,  and  Franche-Comte ;  but  these  arise  from 
a  view,  perhaps,  peculiar  to  myself,  of.  the  nature 
of  the  Frank  confederacies.  I  believe  the  word 
Frank  to  have  distinguished  the  Germans  who  were 
independent  of  Rome  from  those  who  were  in 
allegiance  to  the  empire,  and,  consequently,  that 
it  might  be  borne  by  difierent  divisions  of  the 
German  stock,  and  by  wholly  unconnected  alli- 
ances. More  than  this — if  it  separated  the  Ro- 
manized from  the  independent  Germans,  it  sepa- 
rated, to  a  certain  extent,  the  rude  from  the 
refined,  the  Pagan  from  the  Christian.     Now,  of 


58  FRANCE. 

these  two  classes,  the  rude  independent  Pagans 
were  the  more  likely  conquerors  of  Burgundy 
and  Franche-Comte ;  in  which  case  the  differ- 
ences of  their  civilization  is  likely  to  have  been 
inconsiderable.  It  is  true  that  they  may  have 
been  Christianized  by  time — but  so  were  the 
Salians  of  Clovis.  On  the  other  hand,  their  con- 
tact with  the  undoubtedly  Christian  Goths  of 
Dauphine  and  Languedoc,  had  a  truly  civilizing 
tendency. 

It  was  the  Franks  of  Franche-Comte,  and  not 
the  Salians  of  Clovis,  amongst  whom  we  find  the 
dynasty  of  the  Merovings:  Ptolemy,  at  least, 
places  the  Mapoviyyot  in  the  country  of  the  Bur- 
gundians,  anterior  to  their  passage  of  the  Rhine 
and  their  conquest  of  the  Gallic  provinces  beyond 
it.  Hence,  the  true  Meroving  was  the  Burgun- 
dian  princess  Chlotilda,  the  wife  of  Clovis,  rather 
than  Clovis  himself. 

In  Savoy  the  foreign  intermixture  has  been 
but  small;  the  population  being,  in  the  more 
mountainous  parts  at  least,  simply  Romano- 
Keltic — and  then  more  Keltic  than  Roman. 

Dauphine,  Provence,  Languedoc,  and  Gas- 
cony  carry  us  to  the  Ligurian  and  Iberian 
areas. 

Between  the  second  and  third  Punic  wars  the 
Ligyes  of  Gaul  were  reduced,  rather  later  than 
the  Ligurians  of  Italy.     They  seem  from  the  first 


FRANCE.  59 

have  been  a  warlike  nation,  ^schylus,  as  has 
)een  seen,  arms  them  against  Hercules  ;  and  their 
)rothers  in  the  Apennines  defended  themselves 
dth  valour  and  obstinacy.  The  Salyes  were 
leir  chief  tribe.  How  far  they  extended  in- 
wards is  uncertain.  It  is  only  safe  to  say  that 
Provence  was  Ligurian,  and  Dauphine  Gallo- 
Ligurian  before  it  became  Romanized  :  and  that 
the  remainder  of  the  ethnological  history  of  the 
Ligurians  of  Gaul  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Gallic  Iberians. 

Next  to  the  Spanish  peninsula,  the  southern 
provinces  of  France  were  the  most  deeply  tinc- 
tured with  Arab  influences  of  any  part  of  Eu- 
rope. 

In  the  parts  between  the  Loire  and  Garonne, 
Poitou,  Santonge,  Limoges,  and  Perigord,  ex- 
hibit, in  a  modern  form,  the  names  of  the  ancient 
Pictones,  Santones,  Lemovici,  and  Petrocorii,  all 
of  which  were  Gallic,  though,  perhaps,  not  so 
typically  Gallic  as  the  Parisii,  Carnutes,  Turones, 
and  Bituriges  of  the  Isle  of  France,  the  Orlean- 
nois,  Touraine,  and  Berri.  In  these  parts  the  ad- 
mixture of  Roman  and  Keltic  blood,  has  been 
less  disturbed  by  subsequent  admixture  of  Arabs 
and  Goths  than  elsewhere  ;  not  that  even  here  it 
is  pure.  The  Franks  of  the  Netherlands,  Lor- 
raine, and  the  Franks  of  Burgundy  and  Franche- 
Comte  must  have  seriously  tinctured  the  blood 


60  FRANCE. 

even  in  these  parts.  Champagne,  too,  may  be 
in  the  same  category. 

French  Flanders,  Artois,  and  part  of  Picardy 
are  just  more  Romano-Keltic  and  less  German 
than  the  French  provinces  of  Belgium.  Nor- 
mandy has  its  peculiar  and  characteristic  Scan- 
dinavian elements. 

If  France,  then,  be  essentially  and  fundamen- 
tally Romano-Keltic,  it  is  the  parts  of  which 
Orleans  is  the  centre,  where  the  mixture  is  in  the 
most  normal  proportions  ;  as  is  shown  by  even  the 
names  of  the  provinces.  Brittany,  Normandy, 
Flanders,  Lorraine,  Franche-Comte,  Burgundy, 
Provence,  Gascony,  —  each  of  these  indicates 
something  either  more  or  less  Roman  and  Keltic 
than  the  typical  and  central  parts  of  the  middle 
Loire  and  Seine.     Thus, — 

L  Brittany  is  more  Keltic,  and  consequently 
less  Roman. 

2.  Normandy,  is  not  only  Romano-Keltic,  but 
Scandinavian. 

3.  Flanders,  more  or  less  German. 

4.  Lorraine,  the  same. 

5.  Franche-Comte  and  Burgundy,  Frank  and 
Burgundian,  i.  e.,  German. 

6.  Provence,  inordinately  Roman  ;  the  basis 
being  Ligurian,  and  the  superadded  elements 
Gothic  and  Arab. 

7.  Gascony — Roman  on  an  Iberian  basis. 


ANCIENT   KELTS.  61 

It  is  now  time  to  consider  the  physical  and 
moral  characters  of  the  ancient  Kelts.  It  is  just 
possible  that,  from  the  admixture  of  German  and 
other  blood,  the  average  stature  of  the  Italians 
may  have  increased ;  so  that  the  difference  be- 
tween a  Gaul  and  an  Italian  may  have  been 
greater  in  the  time  of  Cassar  than  now.  That 
the  stature  of  the  French  and  Germans  has  de- 
creased is  improbable.  Be  this,  however,  as  it 
may,  the  evidence  not  only  of  the  second-hand 
authorities  amongst  the  classics,  but  of  Caesar 
himself,  is  to  the  effect  that  the  Gauls  when 
compared  with  the  soldiers  that  were  led  against 
them,  were  taller  and  stouter.  "  The  generality 
despise  our  men  for  their  shortness,  being  them- 
selves so  tall."  Thus  writes  Caesar.  A  good 
series  of  measurements  from  ancient  graves,  would 
either  confirm  or  overthrow  thi^  and  similar 
testimonies.  For  my  own  part,  I  am  dissatisfied 
with  them.  The  habit  of  magnifying  the  thews 
and  sinews  of  the  conquered,  is  a  common  habit 
with  conquerors,  and  Csesar  had  every  motive 
for  giving  their  full  value  to  his  Gallic  conquests 
great  as  they  really  were.  Again, — we  may 
easily  believe  that  both  the  slaves  who  were 
bought  and  sold,  and  the  individual  captives  who 
ornamented  the  triumph  were  picked  men  ;  as 
also  would  be  those  who  were  "  butchered  to 
make  a  Roman  holiday"  in  the  amphitheatres. 


62  ANCIENT   KELTS. 

Again, — differences  of  dress  and  armour  have 
generally  a  tendency  to  exaggerate  the  size  of 
the  wearers ;  and  hence  it  is  that  the  Scotch 
Highlanders,  amongst  ourselves,  are  often  con- 
sidered as  larger  men  than  they  really  are. 
All  who  have  investigated  the  debated  question 
as  to  the  stature  of  the  Patagonians,  have  recog- 
nized in  the  bulky,  baggy  dress,  a  serious  source 
of  error  in  all  measurements  taken  by  the  eye 
only. 

Nevertheless,  the  external  evidence  is  to  the 
great  stature  of  the  ancient  Gauls:  evidence 
which  the  present  size  of  the  French  slightly  in- 
validates. As  far,  too,  as  my  knowledge  extends, 
the  exhumations  of  the  older  skeletons  do  the 
same. 

As  to  their  hair,  whether  flaxen,  yellow,  or 
red,  it  was  light  {^dvOo^),  rather  than  dark. 
Livy  applies  to  it  the  term  rutilatce  suggesting 
that  it  was  reddened  rather  than  simply  red^  and 
Diodorus  Siculus  expressly  states  that  it  was  so  ; 
artificial  means  being  used  to  heighten  the 
natural  hue. 

A  long  list  of  Keltic  gods  can  be  made  out, 
if  we  allow  to  the  Keltic  Pantheon  every  deity 
whose  name  can  be  found  in  inscriptions,  or 
whose  cultus  has  been  attributed  to  the  Galli, 
But  it  is  not  safe  to  admit  this. 

It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  even  the  Galli 


THEIR   DEITIES.  63 

of  northern  Italy  held  a  common  religion 
with  those  of  Gaul ;  and  still  less  is  it  certain 
that  the  numerous  tribes  like  the  Scordisci, 
and  others  of  the  Tyrol,  Styria,  and  Carniola, 
were  Gallic ;  although  both  Roman  writers  call 
them  Gallif  and  Greek,  Galatce.  Neither  are 
inscriptions  conclusive.  I  doubt,  indeed,  whether 
they  be  even  prima  facie  evidence.  We  find 
them  generally,  as  may  be  expected,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  towns.  Of  these  many  were 
military  posts.  Now  the  cohorts  that  occupied 
them  were  Dacians,  Moors,  Germans,  Spaniards, 
Pannonians, — anything,  in  short,  but  Romans. 
What  then  are  we  to  say,  when  an  inscription  to 
such  a  goddess  as  Isis  is  dug  up, — as  has  actually 
been  the  case  in  Britain  ?  Not  that  Isis  was  a 
British  divinity,  but  that  the  garrison  consisted 
of  her  worshippers.  In  the  way  of  detail,  how- 
ever,— 

Hesus  and  Teutates,  as  Gallic  gods,  rest  on  the 
authority  of  Lucan.  Taranis,  whom  he  also 
mentions,  has  a  further  claim  to  notice.  By 
supposing  him  to  be  the  God  of  Thunder,  we 
find  his  name  in  the  present  Welsh  taran. 

"  Et  quibus  immitis  placatur  sanguine  diro 
Teutates,  horrensque  feris  altaribus  Hesus, 
Et  Taranis  Scythicse  non  mitior  ara  Dianse." 

Belenus  rests  on  the  authority  of  Ausonius ; 


64  KELTIC   DEITIES. 

and  as  he  was  worshipped  in  the  Italian  town  of 
Aquileia,  he  may  fairly  be  considered  as  common 
property  to  the  Galli  of  Gaul,  and  the  Galli  of 
Italy.  At  the  same  time,  Tertullian  assigns  him 
to  the  Norici,  who  were,  probably,  other  than 
Gauls  ;  whilst  his  name  has  a  look  suspiciously 
Slavonic,  since  bel  may  be  the  first  syllable  in 
bjelibog,  the  ivhite  god. 

Ogmius  seems  to  be  a  true  GalHc  name,  and 
we  learn  from  Lucian  that  his  attributes  were 
intermediate  to  those  of  Hercules  and  Mercury. 

Peninus  was,  perhaps,  the  name  of  a  locality 
rather  than  a  deity ;  although  Livy  writes  Deus 
Penninus,  The  name  evidently  contains  the 
Keltic  word  peUf  and  signifies  probably  some 
sacred  mountain-top  amongst  the  Pennine  Alps. 

Andorta  was  a  goddess  of  victory,  and  Epona 
one  of  horses ;  the  latter  belonging  to  the  Gauls 
of  Italy. 

All  these  may  fairly  be  considered  Keltic ; 
though  the  evidence  for  none  of  them  is  con- 
clusive. The  names  that  are  supplied  by  in- 
scriptions— names  which,  like  the  previous  ones, 
I  take  from  Zeuss  without  having  examined  the 
details — exhibit  a  remarkable  preponderance  of 
the  termination  -enn-,  or  neh-.  Thus  we  have 
Nehal-ewwm,  Ruma-we^<^,  Ysicalll-nehis,  Maviat- 
inehcB,  Gesat-ence,  Etrai-ew<^,  Aserici-nehce,  and 
luehei'ennius.     I  can  throw  no  light  on  the  ter- 


KELTIC    DEITIES.  65 

mination.  Two  other  names  ending  in  -ast, 
Axhog-ast  and  Morit-a*^,  seem  Slavonic ;  and, 
as  such,  are  probably  referable  to  some  garrison. 

Dusius  has  a  better  claim  than  any  word 
hitherto  mentioned,  since  it  exists  in  the  present 
word  deuce. 

It  is  little,  then,  that  the  minute  ethnologist 
can  add  to  the  current  description  of  the  ancient 
Druidism,  for  by  that  name  it  is  convenient  to 
express  the  Paganism  of  Britain,  in  which  Gaul, 
to  a  certain  degree,  shared.  The  Druid  as  the 
priest,  and  the  Bard  as  the  poet — such  are  the 
native  names  in  the  Gallic  religion  and  literature. 
That  certain  deities  were  analogous  to  the  Ro- 
man Mercury,  Apollo,  Mars,  Jupiter  and  Mi- 
nerva, is  expressly  stated,  but  what  names  each 
bore,  and  how  close  the  parallel  ran  is  unknown. 
"Deum  maxime  Mercurium  colunt:  hujus  sunt 
plurima  simulacra,  hunc  omnium  inventor  em  ar- 
tium  ferunt,  hunc  viarum  atque  itinerum  ducem, 
hunc  ad  quaestus  pecuniae  mercaturasque  habere 
vim  maximam  arbitrantur.  Post  hunc,  Apol- 
linem  et  Martem  et  Jovem  et  Minervam.  De  his 
eandem  fere  quam  reliquae  gentes,  habent  opi- 
nionem  :  ApoUinem  morbos  depellere  ;  Minervam 
operum  atque  artificiorum  initia  transdere ;  Jovem 
imperiumcoelestium  tenere ;  Martem  bellaregere." 

Their  social  constitution  was  a  system  of  chiefs, 
retainers,  and  slaves ;  nevertheless,  the  full  deve- 

F 


66  THE   GAULS. 

lopment  of  such  a  form  of  government  is  not 
easily  to  be  reconciled  with  the  existence  of 
towns  or  cities,  and  such  centres  of  regular  in- 
dustry as  we  know  the  ancient  Gauls  to  have 
possessed.  Whatever  it  may  have  been  in  the 
Belgic  area,  there  are  good  reasons  for  believing 
it  to  have  been  considerably  modified  in  the 
southern  and  central  parts  of  Gaul. 

The  Gauls  knew  the  use  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet, they  cultivated  land,  they  built  towns.  It 
is  impossible,  in  the  face  of  this,  to  allow  them  a 
capacity  for  civilization  less  than  that  of  the 
Iberians,  or  even  than  the  Italians  themselves,  so 
far  as  these  last  were  not  improved  by  Greek  and 
Etruscan  influences. 

That,  contrasted  with  the  Germans,  they  dis- 
played a  great  mobility  of  temper,  is  likely 
enough.  To  the  literature  and  political  power  of 
Rome,  after  the  reduction  of  Gaul  to  a  province, 
they  contributed  largely — less,  perhaps,  than  the 
Spaniards  who  gave  to  their  conquerors  Seneca 
and  Lucan  as  writers,  and  Trajan  and  Adrian  as 
rulers,  but  still  largely  :  for  Cornelius  Gallus, 
in  the  palmy  days  of  Roman  literature,  and 
Ausonius  in  its  decline,  as  well  as  others,  had 
Gallic  blood  in  their  veins. 

Their  aptitude  for  war  can  scarcely  be  mea- 
sured by  the  early  Gallic  aggressions  on  the 
Republic.     He  is  a   bold  man   who   would   say 


JN'ORTH  AND    SOUTH    FRANCE.  67 

lat   the  Teutones   and  Cimbri   were    Keltic    at 
11,  whilst,   in  respect   to  the  Galli  of  Brennus, 
le  Insubrians,  the  Cenomani,  and  other  Gauls 
)f  the   second  Punic  war,   they  were   Cisalpine 
bther  than  Gallic  Kelts.     Still,  they  were  Kelts 
though   Kelts  beyond  the  pale  of  the  Keltic 
Ltherland.     The  same  applies  to  the  Boii. 
I  must  now  change  the  subject  to  remark  that 
lose  differences  of  blood   and  pedigree,  corre- 
)onding   with    (but,  by  no  means,   necessarily, 
creating)    a  difference  of  habits  and  civilization 
rhich  the  previous  investigations  have  afforded, 
:e  only  good  up  to  the  thirteenth  century  ;  so 
lat   it  must  not  be  supposed  that  those  pecu- 
larities  (whatever  they  were),  which  the  Ligurian 
'and    Iberian    bases,    the    earlier   admixture    of 
Romans,  the  subsequent  influence  of  the  Goths, 
and  the  final  introduction  of  Arab  and  Spanish 
elements  evolved,  exist  at  the  present  moment. 
If  it  were  so,  the  difference  between  the  northern 
and  southern   French  would  be  greater  than  it 
really  is.     I  do  not  say  whether  this  is  little  or 
much.    I  only  say  that,  had  the  original  influences 
and  intermixture  taken  their  course,  the  present 
French  of  Languedoc  and  Provence  would  show 
certain  characteristics  which  they  have  now  lost, 
or,  if  they   retain  them,  exhibit   in   a   slighter 
degree.      But    in    the    thirteenth    century,    the 
north  of  France  was  turned  against   the  south. 


68  NORTH   AND    SOUTH    FRANCE. 

There  are  good  writers  who  put  so  high  a  value 
on  the  admixture  of  Arab  and  Hispano-Arabic 
influences  as  to  have  persuaded  themselves  that 
Provence  and  part  of  Gascony  were  on  the  high 
road  to  Mahometanism  when  the  Albigensian 
crusade  arrested  their  career.  One  would  wil- 
lingly believe  that  there  was  some  reason  for 
one  of  the  most  horrible  campaigns  of  history, 
which  might,  as  far  as  a  murderous  fanaticism 
can  be  put  under  the  shadow  of  an  excuse, 
palliate  its  atrocities.  The  physical  historian, 
however,  looks  only  to  its  more  material  ef- 
fects ;  and  these  were  to  replace  a  vast  pro- 
portion of  the  French  of  the  southern  by  the 
French  of  the  northern  type  and  lineage ;  for 
this  is  the  effect  of  wars  of  extermination, 
or  (hoping  that  such  have  never  existed  in 
the  full  extent  of  the  dire  import  of  the 
word)  of  those  conquests  that  either  lust  or 
fanaticism  teaches  to  simulate  them.  I  shall 
quote  Sir  James  Stephen  to  show  that  the  Albi- 
gensian Crusade  was  of  the  kind  in  question. 
He  has  given,  with  painful  eloquence,  the  sick- 
ening details  of  the  wars  under  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort  :— 

"  The  church  of  the  Albigenses  had  been 
drowned  in  blood.  Those  supposed  heretics  had 
been  swept  away  from  the  soil  of  France.  The 
rest  of  the  Languedocian  people  had  been  over- 


NORTH   AND    SOUTH    FEANCE.  69 

rhelmed  with  calamity,  slaughter,  and  devastation, 
^he  estimates  transmitted  to  us  of  the  numbers  of 
le  invaders  and  of  the  slain,  are  such  as  almost 
Surpass  belief.     We  can  neither  verify  nor  cor- 
jct  them  ;  but  we  certainly  know,  that,  during 
long  succession  of  years,  Languedoc  had  been 
ivaded  by  armies  more  numerous  than  had  ever 
before  been  brought  together  in  European  war- 
ire  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.     We 
low  that   these   hosts   were   composed   of  men 
iflamed   by  bigotry,    and   unrestrained  by  dis- 
cipline,— that  they  had  neither  military  pay  nor 
lagazines,  —  that   they   provided   for   all    their 
'^ants  by  the  sword,  living  at  the  expense  of  the 
country,  and  seizing  at  their  pleasure  both  the 
harvests  of  the  peasants  and  the  merchandise  of 
the    citizens.      More    than  three-fourths  of  the 
landed   proprietors  had   been   despoiled  of  their 
fiefs  and  castles.     In  hundreds  of  villages,  every 
inhabitant    had    been    massacred.       There    was 
scarcely  a   family  of  which    some   member   had 
not  fallen  beneath  the  sword  of  De  Montfort's 
soldiers,    or   been   outraged    by  their   brutality. 
Since   the   sack   of  Rome   by  the  Vandals,   the 
European  world  had  never  mourned  over  a  na- 
tional disaster  so  wide  in  its  extent,  or  so  fearful 
in  its  character."* 

From  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
*  "  Lectures  on  the  History  of  France,"  i.  233,  234. 


.70  BELGIUM. 

to  the  present  time  everything  has  had  a  ten- 
dency to  amalgamate  the  component  ethnological 
elements  of  France — to  make  it  a  country  of  one 
nation,  rather  than  the  area  of  many  varieties. 
Its  civil  history,  however,  is  the  source  for  our 
knowledge  of  all  this. 

e^  *  ^  e^  ^ 

The  ethnology  of  Belgium  is  comparatively 
simple.  Its  elements  are  the  same  as  those  of 
Northern  France, — Keltic,  German,  and  Roman  ; 
for  the  analysis  (as  has  perhaps  been  observed) 
grows  simpler  when  we  passed  the  Seine.  And 
this  was  but  natural,  as  the  scene  receded  from 
the  great  centre  of  conquest  and  the  great  points 
of  international  contact. 

In  Belgium  the  Roman  element  is  somewhat 
less,  the  occupation  being  somewhat  more  im- 
perfect; whilst  the  Keltic  basis  is  referable  to 
the  Belgic  variety — a  point  in  which  Picardy, 
French  Flanders,  Artois,  and  part  of  Champagne 
agree. 

In  Belgium  the  German  element  is  more  uni- 
form, i.e.,  it  is  more  exclusively  referable  to  a 
single  division  of  the  German  stock.  No  Goths,  no 
High-German  Burgundians  are  here;  but  Franks 
of  the  Lower  Rhine  the  followers  of  Clojo  and 
Clovis  ;  Franks  from  the  Ysel  or  Salian  Franks  ; 
Franks  whose  chief  locality  in  the  country  that 
they  conquered  was  the  parts  about  Toumay  in 


BELGIUM.  71 

Hainault ;  Franks  who,  if  they  differed  at  all 
from  the  Franks  of  Charlemagne,  whose  line  sub- 
sequently replaced  that  of  Clovis,  did  so  but 
slightly ;  Franks,  too,  of  the  Platt-Deutsch  divi- 
sion of  the  German  stock,  whose  nearest  repre- 
sentatives are  the  Dutch  of  Holland,  and  the 
Low-Germans  of  Cleves,  Juliers,  and  Berg.  I 
believe  that  whether  the  kings  of  these  Germans 
ruled  from  Tournay  or  from  Aix  la-Chapelle, 
the  section  to  which  they  belonged  was  the 
same,  herein  differing  from  those  writers  who, 
because  Charlemagne  was  an  Austrasian,  con- 
trast his  descent  somewhat  strongly  with  that 
of  Clovis. 

To  begin,  however,  with  the  earliest  ethnolo- 
gical history  of  Belgium,  I  remark  that  the  same 
question  which  presented  itself  in  the  case  of 
Alsatia  re-appears  here.  Were  the  oldest  known 
occupants  of  the  country  Gauls,  or  Germans,  or 
Germanized  Gauls  ?  I  believe  that  they  were 
the  latter,  though  not  to  any  great  extent ;  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  Treves,  Juliers,  and 
Berg,  where  the  modification  was  considerable, 
lie  beyond  the  Belgic  frontier.  Still,  as  Tongres 
(a  locality  which  the  express  evidence  of  Tacitus 
makes  German)  is  in  Belgium,  and  as  Caesar  calls 
the  Nervii,  Psemani  and  others,  Germans  (by 
which  I  understand  that  they  belonged  to  a  Ger- 
manic confederacy)  the  existence  of  a  considerable 


72  BELGIUM. 

and  early  intrusion  of  the  tribes  beyond  the 
Rhine  must  be  admitted.  So  that  the  Romans, 
when  they  reduced  Belgium,  reduced  a  country 
which,  like  Alsatia,  although  Gallic,  was  also 
Qwasi- Germanic. 

But  they  reduced  it,  and  they  Romanized 
it ;  and  as  we  find  the  more  active  emperors 
coercing  the  Batavi,  Chamavi,  and  other  po- 
pulations beyond  the  Rhine,  we  may  reason- 
ably suppose  that  they  Romanized  it  through- 
out. 

The  analogue  to  the  Burgundian  conquest  of 
Burgundy  and  Franche-Comte  began  in  the 
fourth  century,  and  not  with  the  invasion  of 
Clovis,  as  is  often  imagined.  Constantius  and 
Julian  had  to  defend  the  frontier  by  land,  and 
Carausius  the  Menapian  by  sea.  And  Julian 
was  the  last  emperor  who  defended  it  success- 
fully. At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  a 
Frank  chief,  not  less  formidable  than  Clovis,  al- 
though less  famous,  Clojo,  invaded  Gaul,  and 
penetrated  as  far  as  the  Somme.  Hainault,  Bra- 
bant, and  West  Flanders  he  seems  to  have  per- 
manently reduced ;  and  wljat  Clojo  left  undone, 
Clovis  completed. 

In  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  the  process  of 
Germanizing  went  on,  but  soon  after  his  death  it 
came  to  a  close ;  so  that  about  four  hundred  years 
is  the  time  that  must  be  allowed  for  the  displace- 


BELGIUM.  73 

ment  of  the  Romano-Belgic  language  of  Belgium, 
i.e,,  of  Antwerp,  South  Brabant,  Limburg,  West 
Flanders,  and  Hainault ;  to  which  may  be  added 
French  Flanders,  Artois,  and  the  northern  part 
of  Picardy — for  to  this  extent  it  seems  to  have 
gone  when  it  attained  its  maximum.  And,  then, 
a  reaction  took  place,  and  the  French  has  en- 
croached ever  since.  Artois,  French  Flanders,  and 
Northern  Picardy  have  been  wholly  recovered  in 
respect  to  their  language  to  France,  and  the  Bel- 
gian provinces  partially.  Such  is  the  evidence  of 
the  Flemish  language  in  Belgium,  of  the  parts 
wherein  it  is  still  spoken,  and  of  the  traces 
of  it  in  as  far  south  as  the  frontier  of  Nor- 
mandy. 

But  it  is  not  the  only  native  language  of  Bel- 
gium— I  say  native,  because  the  French  as  it  is 
spoken  at  Brussels  and  the  towns  is,  to  all  intents 
and  purposes,  as  foreign  a  language  as  English  is 
in  Argyle  or  Inverness.  In  Namur,  Liege,  and 
Luxembourg,  the  speech  is  what  is  called  Wal- 
loon, the  same  word  as  Welsh,  and  derived  from 
the  German  root  wealh,  a  foreigner.  By  this  de- 
signation the  Germans  of  the  Flemish  tongue 
denoted  the  Romano-Belgic  population  whose 
language  was  akin  to  the  French,  and  whom  a 
hilly  and  impracticable  country  (the  forest  dis- 
tricts of  the  Ardennes)  had  more  or  less  protected 
from   their  own  arms.      Now  the  Walloon  is  a 


74  BELGIUM. 

form  of  the  Romano-Keltic,  so  peculiar  and  inde- 
pendent, that  it  must  be  of  great  antiquity,  i.e., 
as  old  as  the  oldest  dialect  of  the  French,  and  no 
extension  of  the  dialects  of  Lorraine,  or  Cham- 
pagne from  which  it  differs  materially.  It  is 
also  a  language  which  must  have  been  formed 
on  a  Keltic  basis,  a  fact  which  (as  stated  else- 
where) is  a  strong  argument  against  the  doctrine 
of  the  Belgae  of  Csesar  and  Tacitus  having  been 
Germans. 

The  Walloons,  then,  are  Romano-Keltic ; 
whereas  the  Flemings  are  Germans,  in  speech 
and  in  blood — either  Romano-Kelts  Germanized, 
or  else  absolute  Germans ;  for  upon  the  extent 
to  which  the  Flemish  language  is  a  measure  of 
German  descent,  I  venture  no  opinion.  We  must 
remember,  however,  that  as  the  Franks  came 
from  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine,  and  from  a  not 
very  distant  locality,  the  number  of  females  who 
accompanied  them  may  have  been  considerable. 
Still,  I  think,  that  intermixture  was  the  rule,  and 
purity  of  blood  the  exception. 

In  stature,  the  Flemish  Belgians  are  larger 
men  than  the  French,  and,  in  the  country  districts, 
more  frequently  fair-complexioned.  In  certain 
families,  too,  there  is  a  mixture  of  Spanish 
blood. 

The  Walloons  are  less  bulky  than  the  Flem- 
ings, dark-eyed  and  black-haired. 


SWITZERLAND.  75 

The  particular  Germans  who  reduced  the 
Flemish  parts  of  Belgium,  as  well  as  the  north- 
western parts  of  France,  were  the  Salii  of  Saal- 
land  on  the  Ysel  in  the  parts  about  Zutphen 
and  Deventer.  But  not  alone.  The  Chamavi  of 
Hamaland  were  with  them  ;  and,  probably  tribes 
of  Holland  and  the  Lower  Rhine  besides.  Even 
there  they  were  not  altogether  indigenous,  as  will 
be  seen  when  the  ethnology  of  Holland  comes 
under  notice. 

In  the  foregoing  account  Luxembourg,  and 
Limburg,  although  politically  belonging  to  Hol- 
land, have  been  considered  Belgian. 

v|?  ^  vl?  7|C  ^ 

Switzerland,  from  having  a  Keltic  basis,  comes 
next  in  order.  The  ancient  Helvetia  is  at 
the  present  moment  partly  German,  partly 
French,  partly  Italian,  and  partly  Romance  ;  that 
is,  if  we  look  to  its  languages  and  dialects  only. 
Now  as  the  last  three  tongues  are  derived  from 
the  Roman,  we  may  express  the  character  of  the 
Swiss  tongues  in  more  general  language,  and 
reduce  them  to  two  great  classes,  the  Gothic  and 
the  Latin.  This,  however,  will  not  give  us  the 
ethnology  of  the  country,  since  the  blood  is  far 
more  mixed  than  the  speech.  The  analysis  of 
this  is  complex. 

In  the  time  of  Caesar  the  term  Helvetia  coin- 
cided with   the  modern   country  of  Switzerland 


76  SWITZERLAND. 

sufficiently  closely  for  all  practical  purposes  of 
general,  perhaps  for  those  of  minute,  ethnology 
also. 

The  Helvetii,  also,  of  Caesar  were  Kelts ;  so 
that  the  basis  of  the  population  is  Keltic — although 
the  variety  of  that  stock  was  probably  a  very 
marked  one. 

The  famous  Helvetian  migration  is  one  of  the 
earliest  and  greatest  facts  in  the  Swiss  history, 
Orgetorix,  a  Keltic  name,  is  the  king.  The 
boundaries,  on  three  sides,  are  well  marked,  but 
not  on  the  fourth.  The  Jura  range  separates 
them  from  the  Sequani  of  Franche-Comte,  the 
Rhine  from  the  populations  of  Baden  and  Wurtem- 
burg  (which  Caesar  calls  German),  and  the  Rhone 
and  the  Lake  of  Geneva  from  Savoy,  which  was 
part  of  the  Roman  Provincia,  The  boundaries  in 
the  direction  of  the  Tyrol  are  undescribed,  pro- 
bably because  they  were  unascertained.  An  ex- 
cess of  population  is  the  motive  for  their  emigra- 
tion. It  is  undertaken  with  due  foresight.  Two 
years  beforehand,  they  buy  up  all  kinds  of  vehicles 
and  beasts  of  burden,  and  sow  as  much  corn  as 
the  ground  will  allow  them.  Alliances  are  sought 
with  the  neighbouring  powers.  The  Rauraci, 
Tulingi,  Latobriges,  and  Boii,  are  asked  to  burn 
their  towns  and  join  the  expedition.  The  parts 
about  Thoulouse  are  their  object.  It  is  abortive. 
Caesar  defeats  them  and  breaks  it  up ;  the  num- 


SWITZERLAND.  77 

bers  of  its  component  members  being  afterwards 
found  to  be  as  follows  : — 


Helvetians,  from  Switzerland 

.  263,000 

Tulingians,  from  Savoy 

36,000 

Latobrigians 

.     14,000 

Rauraci,  from  Baden 

23,000 

Boii,  from  Bavaria 

.     33  000 

Total  369,000 

Of  these,  the  number  of  warriors  was  110,000, 
the  rest  being  old  men,  women,  and  children. 

But  as  the  historian  of  these  movements  is  the 
conqueror  of  Gaul,  we  must  expect,  ere  long,  the 
reduction  of  Helvetia  to  a  Roman  province.  It 
takes  place  as  a  matter  of  course.  It  is  Caesar 
who  effects  it ;  and  the  process  of  Romanizing 
begins.  The  Roman  language,  however,  I  think, 
extends  itself  into  Switzerland  from  three  points; 
from  Gaul,  from  Italy,  and  from  the  Tyrol. 
Such,  at  least,  is  the  inference  from  the  present 
dialects;  since  in  Tessino  and  the  Valteline  we 
have  the  Italian ;  in  Geneva  and  the  Valais, 
the  French';  and  in  the  Grisons,  the  Romance. 

This  last  requires  notice.  If  we  follow  the 
Rhine  from  the  Lake  of  Constance,  we  are  car- 
ried up  into  the  narrow  valley  in  which  it  rises, 
and  here  the  dialect  is  neither  French  nor  Italian, 
but  a  separate  substantive  tongue  which,  like 
them,  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  accordingly, 


78  SWITZERLAND. 

it  is  known  as  the  Romance  or  Rumonsch  of  the 
Grisons  or  Graubiinten.  The  Inn  must  then  be 
traced  upwards  in  like  manner,  when  in  the 
valley  of  its  head-waters,  and  the  water-shed 
between  it  and  the  Rhine,  the  Romance  will  be 
found  again.  It  is  reduced  to  writing  and 
spoken  in  several  dialects  and  subdialects ;  so  as 
to  have  all  the  appearance  of  a  language  of  long 
standing. 

Now  this,  I  imagine,  represents  the  Latin  of 
Rhastia  —  i,e,,  of  the  Tyrol  and  Yorarlberg  — 
rather  than  that  of  Gaul,  and  it  was  from  the 
Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  conquered  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus  by  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  that  it  was 
introduced. 

In  few  countries  reduced  by  Rome  must  the 
blood  on  the  mother's  side  have  been  more  abo- 
riginal than  in  Helvetia,  and  in  few  countries  is 
the  extent  to  which  the  speech  is  Latin  less  a 
measure  of  the  Latinity  of  the  descent. 

Until  the  fifth  century  Switzerland  was  Keltic 
and  Latin,  even  as  France  was ;  and  then  mixture 
set  in,  partially.  The  Germans  of  Suabia  and 
Franconia,  Germans  of  the  High-German  divi- 
sion, Germans  by  whom  Alsatia,  Bavaria,  Baden, 
Wurtemburg,  Burgundy,  and  Franche-Comte, 
were  Germanized — some  perfectly,  some  partially 
— extended  their  conquests  to  the  present  can- 
tons of  Schwytz,  Uri,  Unterwalden,  and  the  other 


SWITZERLAND.  79 

cantons  of  the  German  language  ;  the  populations 
of  which  are  Keltic,  Roman,  and  German,  those 
of  the  rest  of  Switzerland  being  simply  Keltic 
and  Roman. 

Switzerland,  then,  is  the  third  country  in  which 
the  basis  is  Keltic,  and  the  superadded  elements 
Roman  and  German. 


80 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ITALY.  —  LIGURIANS.  —  ETRUSCANS.  —  VENETIANS  AND  LIBUR- 
NIANS. — UMBRIANS. — AUSONIANS. LATINS. — EARLIEST  POPU- 
LATIONS    OF     NORTH-EASTERN     ITALY. SOUTH     ITALIANS. 

ITALIAN    ORIGIN    OF   THE   GREEKS. SICILIANS. ELEMENTS   OF 

ADMIXTURE. HERULIAN. —  GOTHIC. LOMBARD. —  ARAB. 

NORMAN. ANALYTICAL     SKETCH     OF     THE     POPULATION      OF 

MODERN    ITALY. 

The  only  part  of  Italy  of  which  the  ethnology 
is  even  moderately  simple  is  the  part  belonging 
to  Sardinia,  or  Piedmont.  Here  the  original 
occupancy  was  Ligurian.  Eporedia,  the  modern 
Ivrea,  is  particularly  mentioned  as  a  Ligurian 
town,  and,  as  its  name  has  generally  been  con- 
sidered Keltic,  it  has  supplied  one  of  the  argu- 
ments in  favour  of  the  Ligurians  being  a  branch 
of  that  stock.  Bodencomagus,  too,  has  already 
been  mentioned.  The  ancient  name  of  the  Upper 
Po,  Eridanus,  appears  to  contain  the  same  root  as 
the  name  Rhodanus,  and,  perhaps,  as  Rhenus; 
whilst  Scingo-m-agus  and  Rigo-magus  give  us 
further  instances  of  the  evidently  Keltic  termina- 
tion -magus.  The  parts  south  of  the  Po,  which 
alone  constituted  the  true  and  proper  Liguria  in 


LIGURIANS.  81 

the  political  sense  of  the  term,  were  reduced 
between  the  second  and  third  Punic  wars ;  the 
following  being  Niebuhr's  account  of  them  : — 

*'  The  Ligurian  war  is  not  only  insignificant,  in 
comparison  with  others,  but  extremely  obscure, 
on  account  of  our  want  of  an  accurate  geogra- 
phical knowledge  of  the  country.  It  has  some 
resemblance  to  the  present  undertakings  against 
the  Caucasian  tribes.  The  Apennines  are  not, 
indeed,  as  high  as  the  Caucasus,  but  they  oflfer 
the  same  advantages  for  their  inhabitants  to  de- 
fend themselves.  The  Ligurians  were  ultimately 
annihilated,  which  is  always  the  unavoidable  fate 
of  such  nations,  when  a  powerful  state  is  bent 
upon  their  destruction.  The  Ligurian  tribes  ex- 
tended in  reality  as  far  as  the  river  Rhone  ;  but 
as  the  Romans  were  chiefly  concerned  in  securing 
the  frontiers  of  Etruria,  they  made  themselves 
masters  only  of  the  territory  of  Genoa.  The 
wars  did  not  extend  beyond  the  river  Varus, 
or  the  frontiers  of  Provence,  for  the  hostilities 
against  the  Salyes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mas- 
silia  belong  to  a  later  period.  The  Ligurian 
tribes  defended  themselves  and  their  poverty  with 
such  resolute  determination,  that  the  Romans, 
who  could  not  expect  any  rich  spoils,  aimed  at 
nothing  short  of  extirpating  them,  or  expelling 
them  from  their  mountains.  The  consuls,  P. 
Qomelius  Cethegus  and  M.  Baebius  Tamphilus, 


82  ETRUSCANS. 

therefore  transplanted  50,000  Ligurians  into  Sam- 
nium,  where  Frontinus,  as  late  as  the  second  cen- 
tury of  our  own  era,  found  their  descendants 
under  the  name  of  the  Cornelian  and  B^bian 
Ligurians.  The  war  was  brought  to  a  close 
before  that  against  Perseus.  It  was  especially 
for  the  purpose  of  exercising  control  over  Gaul 
that  the  high  road  of  Flaminius,  which  went  as 
far  as  Ariminum,  was  now  continued,  under  the 
name  of  via  Flaminia,  as  far  as  Placentia,  and 
that  the  whole  country  south  of  the  Po  was  so 
much  filled  with  colonies,  that  the  Keltic  popula- 
tion disappeared." 

But  the  parts  to  the  north  of  that  river  were 
conquered  later,  the  Salassi  of  the  valley  of 
Aosta  in  the  reign  of  Augustus. 

How  far  the  population  which  I  consider  to 
have  been  allied  to  the  Ligurian  on  the  one  side 
and  the  Helvetian  on  the  other,  may  have  ex- 
tended eastwards,  is  difficult  to  say ;  but  the 
Tyrol  was  the  centre  of  a  new  stock.  This  stock 
was  the  Etruscan.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  we 
have  now  before  us  one  of  the  vexatcs  qucestiones 
of  ethnology.  The  account  of  Herodotus  is  as 
follows : — 

"  The  Lydians  state  amongst  other  things  that 
they  colonized  Tyrsenia ;  saying  thus  concerning 
it.  In  the  days  of  Atys,  the  son  of  Manes,  their 
king,  there  was  a  severe  famine  over  the  whole  of 


ETRUSCANS.  83 

Lydia.  For  a  while  the  Lydians  bore  up ;  but, 
afterwards,  when  it  would  not  cease,  they  sought 
for  a  remedy.  One  invented  one  thing,  one  another; 
and  then  were  found  out  dice,  astragali^  the  top, 
and  all  other  kind  of  games;  chess  alone  being 
excepted.  But  when  the  evil  would  not  abate, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  pressed  all  the  more,  the 
king  having  divided  the  whole  body  of  Lydians 
into  two  parts,  allotted  to  the  one  of  them  to 
stay  at  home,  and  to  the  other  a  departure  from 
the  country.  With  the  one  that  had  to  stay  at 
home,  the  king  himself  remained  at  the  head ; 
with  the  other  his  son  Tyrsenus.  They  then 
went  to  Smyrna,  and  having  contrived  a  ship  and 
put  therein  all  that  was  needful  for  their  voyage, 
they  sailed  away  in  search  of  a  living,  until, 
having  passed  by  many  nations,  they  came  to  the 
Ombriki,  where  they  settled  cities,  and  where 
they  remain  to  this  day.  Instead  of  Lydians, 
they  changed  their  name  to  that  of  the  king's 
son,  who  led  them,  and,  taking  this,  were  called 
Tyrseni."— I.  94. 

Few  passages  of  antiquity  are  better  known 
than  this,  and  the  criticism  which  has  been  be- 
stowed upon  it  is  proportionate  to  the  difficulty 
of  the  question  upon  which  it  bears.  Niebuhr 
objected  to  it  on  negative  grounds  ;  or  rather, 
he  affirmed  the  opinion  of  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
nassus  who  had  done  so  before  him  ;  as  Xanthus, 


84  ETRUSCANS. 

a  native  Lydian,  and  an  historian  as  well,  had  said 
nothing  about  this  Tyrsenian  migration.  And 
this  objection  may  be  strengthened.  The  state- 
ment that  the  Etruscans  of  Tuscany  called  them- 
selves Tyrseni  is  inaccurate.  The  native  name 
was  Rasena ;  and  Tyrseni  was  only  what  their 
neighbours  called  them.  Yet,  according  to  the 
Herodotean  account,  if  one  name  ought  to  be 
more  national  than  another,  that  name  was  the 
one  derived  from  their  princely  leader  —  Tyr- 
senus.  The  stoppage,  too,  of  the  expedition 
at  Smyrna,  brings  the  date  of  the  migration 
inconveniently  low. 

Prichard  admits  that  "his  (Dionysius's)  argu- 
ments weigh  heavily  against  the  credibility  of  this 
story."  For  reasons  too  lengthy  to  be  given  here, 
I  wholly  disbelieve  the  Lydian  tradition.  On  the 
contrary,  I  lay  what  many  may  consider  undue 
stress  upon  the  account  of  Livy,  who  says  that 
"  the  dominion  of  the  Tuscans  was  widely  extended 
before  the  prevalence  of  the  Roman  arms  ;  their 
power  was  predominant  on  the  two  seas  which 
embrace  Italy  on  both  sides.  Of  this  the  names 
given  to  these  branches  of  the  Mediterranean 
afford  a  proof ;  for  the  nations  of  Italy  have  given 
to  one  of  these  seas  the  name  of  Tuscan,  from 
the  common  appellation  of  the  people,  and  to 
the  other  that  of  Adriatic,  derived  from  Adria, 
a  Tuscan  colony.     The   Greeks  term  them  Tyr- 


ETRUSCAIN^S.  85 

rhenian  and  Adriatic.  The  Etruscans,  in  either 
territory,  possessed  twelve  cities.  Their  first  set- 
tlements were  on  this  side  of  the  Apennines  on 
the  lower  sea ;  they  afterwards  sent  out  as  many 
colonies  as  the  original  country  contained  prin- 
cipal towns,  and  these  colonies  occupied  all  the 
country  beyond  the  Po,  as  far  as  the  Alps,  except 
the  corner  belonging  to  the  Yeneti.  The  same 
people,  doubtless,  gave  origin  to  some  of  the 
Alpine  nations,  particularly  to  the  Rhaeti ;  who, 
by  the  nature  of  the  country  which  they  occupy, 
have  been  rendered  barbarous,  and  retain  nothing 
of  their  ancient  character,  except  their  language, 
and  that  in  a  corrupt  state." 

The  analysis  of  this  extract  will  verify  its  im- 
portance. The  last  sentence  contains  a  statement 
in  the  way  of  evidence,  and  an  opinion  in  the 
shape  of  an  inference.  I  admit  the  former,  and 
demur  to  the  latter.  The  statement  as  to  the 
language  of  the  Rhseti  being  Etruscan,  is  that 
of  an  author  whose  advantages  of  time,  place, 
and  circumstances  were  great.  As  a  native  of 
Padua  he  was  as  well-placed  for  knowing  how 
the  Rhaetian  differed  from  the  Latin  as  a  Low- 
land Scot  is  for  giving  evidence  to  the  distinct 
character  of  the  Gaelic.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
was  the  adviser  and  reviewer  of  an  antiquarian 
work  of  the  Emperor  Claudius  on  the  very 
subject   of  Etruscan   history;  so    that,   his   tes- 


86  ETRUSCANS. 

timony  on  this  point,  is  that  of  no  common 
author.  He  speaks  to  what  he  had  the  means 
of  knowing,  and  he  speaks  to  a  cotemporary 
fact. 

But  the  inference  from  this  similarity  of  speech 
is  a  different  matter ;  one  that  the  modern  inves- 
tigator, with  a  wider  knowledge  of  the  general 
phenomena  of  ethnological  distribution,  may  ven- 
ture to  correct.  The  occupation  of  a  mountain- 
range  by  the  inhabitants  of  a  plain  country  is  a 
reversal  of  the  usual  order  of  events.  It  is  far 
more  likely  that  the  mountaineers  should  have 
become  refined  under  the  influences  of  a  fertile 
soil,  milder  climate,  and  an  enlarged  commerce* 
than  that  the  Etruscans  of  Etruria  should  have 
become  rude  and  barbarous.  After  all,  however, 
the  question  is  only  one  of  degree.  It  is  no  opi- 
nion of  Livy's  that  the  Rhaetian  Alps  were  colo- 
nized from  the  Etrurians  of  Tuscany.  Their  occu- 
pants must  have  been  derived  from  the  plains  at 
their  foot,  from  the  Northern  Etrurians  of  the 
Venetian  territory  and  Lombardy ;  and  whether 
these  extended  a  little  more  or  a  little  less  in 
the  direction  of  the  Tyrol  is  unimportant.  The 
primary  fact  is,  that,  according  to  the  only  co- 
temporary  evidence  existing,  the  Valley  of  the 
Adige  was  as  Etruscan  as  the  Valley  of  the 
Arno. 

How  far  the  Etrurians  south  of  the  Tyrol  were 


ETRUSCANS.  87 

indigenous  populations,  or  how  far  they  were  in- 
trusive conquerors,  is  difficult,  perhaps  impos- 
sible, to  determine.  It  is  difficult,  too,  to  say 
where  they  came  in  contact  with  the  Ligurians, 
where  they  first  encroached  on  the  Umbrians, 
and  what  boundary  separated  them  from  the  Ve- 
netians and  Liburnians.  Perhaps,  we  may  give 
them  all  Lombardy,  the  western  third  of  the 
Venetian  territory,  Parma,  Modena,  Bologna,  and 
Ferrara,  I  think  that  in  all  these  parts  they  were 
intrusive  conquerors,  and,  a  fortiori,  that  they 
were  intrusive  conquerors  in  Tuscany.  In  Fer- 
rara, and  the  parts  due  north  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Po,  they  were,  for  reasons  which  will  appear 
in  the  sequel,  necessarily  so.  In  Campania  they 
were  comparatively  recent  colonists. 

The  western  third  of  the  Venetian  territory 
may  easily  have  been  Etruscan,  Rhaetian,  or 
Etrusco-Rhaetian ;  the  other  two-thirds  were  Li- 
hurnian,  or  Venetian,  the  country  of  the  Veneti 
and  Liburni.  The  affinities  of  these  populations, 
which  were  closely  allied  to  each  other,  was  with 
the  lUyrians  of  Dalmatia.  In  other  words,  it  was 
only  in  a  political  point  of  view  that  they  were 
Italians  at  all.  For  some  of  the  higher  questions 
of  ethnology,  however,  the  Liburni  and  Veneti  are 
tribes  of  exceeding  importance. 

Now,  if  we  are  right  in  supposing  the  Ligurians 
to  have  been  Kelts,  the  earliest  historical  occu- 


88  LIBURNIANS. 

pants  of  Lombardy,  Etruscans,  and  the  Liburnians 
and  Venetians  members  of  a  distinct  stock,  we 
have  to  go  far  towards  the  south  before  we  find 
the  population  with  which  the  ideas  suggested  by 
the  term  Italian  are  connected ;  before  we  find 
a  language  allied  to  the  Latin,  or  before  we  find 
a  civilization  and  polity  akin  to  that  of  the 
Romans.  As  far  as  we  have  gone  hitherto,  the 
nations  of  the  Po  and  Arno  are  as  little  Italian  as 
the  Basques  are  Castilian.  They  have  been  the 
nation  not  out  of  which,  but  in  spite  of  which 
Italy  became  the  country  of  the  Italian  language. 
No  immediate  affinities  have  yet  been  found  for 
Rome. 

Language  will  be  the  chief  test ;  and  of  the 
languages  allied  to  the  Latin  the  most  northern 
were  the  Umbrian  and  the  Latin  itself;  the  former 
on  the  east,  the  latter  on  the  west  coast;  the 
former  spoken  as  far  north  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Po  (in  lat.  45°),  the  latter  no  further  than  that 
of  the  Tiber  (in  lat.  42°). 

The  particular  division  of  those  ancient  Italian 
populations  of  which  the  language  was  Umbrian 
rather  than  Latin  or  Oscan,  occupied,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  historical  period,  the  present 
districts  of  Urbino  and  Perugia,  but  as  there  is 
strong  prima  facie  evidence  of  their  original  area 
having  been  much  wider,  as  well  as  traditions  (if 
not  historical  records)  of  the  Umbrians  having  suf- 


UMBRIANS.  89 

fered  considerable  displacement  both  on  the  north 
and  west,  in  the  direction  of  Lombardy,  and  in  the 
direction  of  Tuscany,  Ferrara,  the  Romagna,  parts 
of  Bologna  and  Tuscany  may  be  added  to  the 
Umbrian  area  in  its  oldest  form.  Southwards, 
too,  it  may  be  carried  to  the  March  of  Ancona, 
or  the  northern  part  of  the  Upper  Picentine. 
The  ancient  Umbrians  consisted  of  separate  tribes, 
of  which  the  one  first  known  to  the  Romans  was 
that  of  the  Camertes.  Yet  they  were,  at  the 
earliest  times,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and 
the  builders  of  cities ;  and  as  the  Umbrians,  in 
general,  passed  for  the  oldest  occupants,  their 
capital  Ameria,  was  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of 
Italy.  Pliny  gives  the  date  of  its  foundation  as 
381  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome. 

The  Umbrians  here  meant  are  the  people  who 
used  the  language  of  what  are  known  as  theEugu- 
bine  Inscriptions,  so  called  from  the  place  of  their 
discovery,  Gobbio,  the  ancient  Iguvium;  which 
the  researches  of  Grotefend  and  others  have  shown 
to  be  undeniably  akin  to  the  Latin. 

From  the  famous  Sabines,  in  the  strict  sense 
of  the  word,  and  from  the  Sabine  population  in 
its  purest  form,  the  Italians  who  may  best  claim 
a  descent  are  those  occupants  of  that  part  of 
the  states  of  the  church  which  lies  due  north  of 
the  Campagna  di  Roma,  and  is  bounded  by  the 
Tiber,  the   Teverone,  the  Nera,  and  the  Apen- 


90  AUSONIAN    LANGUAGE. 

nines,  the  country  people  of  the  parts  about 
Narri,  Otricoli,  and  Rieti.  The  Campagria  di 
E/Oma  is  pre-eminently  Latin, 

For  the  north-western  Neapolitans  in  the  Upper 
Abruzzo,  the  descent  is  from  the  southern  Pi- 
ceni,  the  Vestini,  the  Frentani,  the  Peligni,  the 
Marsi,  and  other  less  important  tribes,  which 
it  is  difficult  to  distribute,  i,e,,  to  say,  how  far 
they  approached  the  Umbrian  type  in  the  north, 
or  the  Samnite,  in  the  centre  of  Italy.  It  is 
difficult,  too,  to  say  whether  some  of  them"  were 
Latin  or  Oscan  most. 

All  this  is  difficult,  but,  except  to  the  minute 
ethnologist,  unimportant.  It  is  enough  to  re- 
member that  when  we  reach  the  ancient  Samnium 
and  Campania,  the  type  has  changed,  at  least, 
in  respect  to  language ;  for  the  speech  is  neither 
Umbrian  nor  Latin,  though  the  detail  of  the 
differences  and  agreements  between  the  Samnite 
and  Campanian  dialects  is  difficult. 

The  language  itself  is  the  Oscan,  or  Opican, 
spoken  at  different  times  as  far  north  as  the 
neighbourhood  of  Rome,  and  as  far  south  as 
Bruttium ;  where,  however,  it  was  not  indigenous. 
It  was  common  to  Samnium  and  Campania,  but 
not  to  Lucania  and  Apulia,  originally.  The 
general  name  for  the  nations  that  spoke  it  will 
be  Ausonian. 

The  Oscan  is  known  to  us  from  inscriptions. 


LATIN    LAlfGUAGE.  91 

and  is,  at  the  least,  as  closely  allied  as  the  Um- 
brian  to — 

The  Latin. — I  think  the  Latin  was  the  lan- 
guage of  the  more  southern  of  the  earliest  inha- 
bitants of  Etruria  ;  so  that  at  the  time  of  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  important  as  it  was  des- 
tined to  become  afterwards,  it  was  in  the  position 
of  the  Cornish  of  Cornwall  about  three  centuries 
ago.  It  may  also  be  compared  with  the  modern 
Frisian  of  Friesland,  a  tongue  spoken  at  present 
over  a  small  and  unimportant  area,  but  one 
which  was  once  spread  far  and  wide  over  northern 
Germany.  If  the  Welsh  were  to  reconquer  Eng- 
land, or  the  Frisians  Germany,  the  phenomenon 
which  I  imagine  to  have  been  presented  by  the 
history  of  Rome  would  be  repeated.  A  people 
conquered  up  to  a  certain  point  react  on  their 
conquerors,  vanquish  them,  and  a  fourth  of  the 
world  besides.  This  opinion  is,  of  course,  the 
result  of  general  ethnological  reasoning,  rather 
than  the  testimony  of  historians  ;  yet  I  am  not 
aware  of  any  undoubted  fact  that  it  opposes.  It 
stands  or  falls  by  the  phenomena  it  explains. 
The  chief  of  these  is  the  peculiar  character  of 
the  Latin  language. 

Is  any  one  prepared  to  consider  it  the  result 
of  an  intermixture  of  two  or  more  dialects  ? 

Or  to  limit  its  original  area  to  a  district  not 
twenty  miles  across  ? 


92  AREAS   OF   CONNECTION. 

For  myself  I  do  neither  one  nor  the  other.  I 
look  upon  it  as  a  separate  and  independent  mode 
of  speech,  even  as  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan, 
and,  I  cannot  think  that  the  Seven  Hills  of  Rome 
were  sufficient  to  constitute  the  area  of  its  de- 
velopment. Yet  to  these  it  must  be  limited; 
for  the  Etruscan  reached  below  Veil,  the  Oscan 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  Ardea  and  Prasneste,  and 
the  Sabine  below  Cures  ;  and  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that,  however  like  the  two  dialects  may 
have  been,  the  Sabine  was  not  Latin. 

The  Etruscans  of  Tuscany  were  an  intrusive 
and  foreign  population  (if  this  be  not  admitted 
the  reasoning  on  it  falls  to  the  ground),  and  the 
earlier  tribes  that  they  dispersed  were  the  Italians 
of  the  Latin  type;  for  assuredly,  if  such  Italians, 
other  than  those  of  Latium,  ever  existed  it  is  in 
the  parts  north  of  the  Tiber  that  they  are  to  be 
sought  in  the  first  instance  ;  since  it  is  there  that 
the  evidence  of  displacement  is  strongest.  Some- 
thing earlier  than  the  Etruscans  of  Etruria  must 
have  existed  in  the  Patrimonio  di  San  Pietro 
and  the  southern  part  of  Tuscany,  and  these,  I 
imagine  to  have  been  Latins — ^just  as  Devonshire 
was  once  Cornish,  and  would  have  been  so  again, 
had  the  Cornishmen  been  to  England,  what  the 
Romans  were  to  Italy. 

At  the  same  time  some  extension  southwards 
and  eastwards  must  be  allowed;  since  tradition, 


AREAS    OF    COraECTIOI^.  93 

perhaps  history,  makes  both  the  Sabines  and 
the  Volscians  more  or  less  intrusive.  The  main 
extension,  however,  of  the  populations  of  the 
Latin  type  was  Etruria. 

And  now,  before  we  go  to  Apulia,  Calabria, 
and  Sicily,  we  must  revert  to  the  parts  on  the 
Lower  Po,  the  parts  which,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  historical  period,  were  occupied  by  Etruscans, 
more  or  less  displaced  by  Gauls — partially,  at 
first,  wholly,  afterwards;  the  Gauls  themselves 
being  about  to  be  superseded  by  the  Romans. 

A  statement  has  already  been  made  to  the 
effect  that  in  Ferrara  and  the  country  northwards, 
the  Etruscans  were  necessarily  intruders  rather 
than  aboriginal  inhabitants.  The,reasons  for  this 
statement  were  reserved.  They  will  now  be 
given. 

The  earliest  populations  of  the  Lower  Po  must 
have  come  under  conditions  which,  unless  we 
suppose  them  to  have  been  intermediate  to  the 
Umbrians  and  Liburnians,  the  ancient  Etruscans 
(unless  they  were  themselves  similarly  intermediate) 
did  not  meet.  They  must  have  connected  the  lan- 
guages allied  to  the  ancient  tongues  of  Central 
Italy,  with  those  of  ancient  Noricum — the  former 
being  (as  is  admitted  and  generally  known)  allied 
to  the  Latin,  the  latter  (as  is  assumed  for  the  pre- 
sent, but  as  will  be  supported  by  reasons  in 
the   sequel)   being    Slavonic    and    allied    to   the 


94  AREAS    OF    CONIN^ECTION'. 

Servian,  i.e.,  just  what  they  are  now,  only  in  an 
older  stage. 

Now,  whoever  admits  the  validity  of  the 
valuable  philological  researches  of  those  scholars, 
who,  by  showing  the  extent  to  which  languages 
apparently  as  different  as  the  German,  the  Greek, 
the  Latin,  the  Lithuanian,  or  the  Russian,  are 
essentially  cognate,  have  reduced  the  leading 
tongues  of  Europe  to  a  single  great  class,  falling, 
after  the  manner  of  the  classes  in  zoology  and 
botany,  into  definite  divisions  and  subdivisions — 
a  class  which,  though  somewhat  inconveniently 
denominated  Indo-European,  is  still,  as  far  as  it 
goes,  a  true  and  natural  group — must  see  the 
necessity  of  bringing  the  languages  thus  allied 
into  as  close  geographical  contact  as  possible ; 
since  the  divisions  to  which  they,  respectively, 
belong,  are  the  two  most  allied  members  of 
the  class  in  question.  For  that  the  Sarmatian 
and  classical  tongues  are  nearer  each  other  than 
the  classical  and  German,  the  classical  and 
Keltic,  notwithstanding  the  opinions  of  several 
eminent  scholars  to  the  contrary,  is  a  safe  asser- 
tion; perhaps  it  is  also  the  preponderating 
opinion. 

To  connect,  therefore,  the  areas  where  lan- 
guages thus  allied  are  spoken,  by  areas  belonging 
to  transitional  and  intermediate  populations  is  an 
ethnological  necessity ;  and,  however  much  sub- 


AREAS  OF   CONNECTION.  95 

sequent  changes  may  have  obliterated  such  areas 
of  connexion,  however  early  those  changes  may 
have  occurred ;  however  complete  they  may  have 
been;  and  however  much  they  may  have  been 
followed  up  by  others,  the  original  continuity 
must,  at  one  time  or  other,  earlier  or  later,  have 
had  an  existence. 

Unless  we  admit  this,  we  must  suppose  that 
similar  names  for  similar  objects,  and  similar  in- 
flections for  similar  moods,  tenses,  and  cases,  have 
been  developed  independently  of  community  of 
origin ;  a  doctrine  upheld  by  few,  and  one  which 
would  require  the  most  transcendental  philology 
to  support  it;  a  doctrine  which,  without  con» 
demning  as  unreasonable,  we  may  fairly  say  has 
never  much  influenced  the  current  doctrine  of 
ethnologists. 

Admitting  it,  however,  we  must  recognise  a 
long  series  of  difficult  problems;  problems  that 
have  so  rarely  been  dealt  wuth  as  to  be  considered 
wholly  new  and  foreign;  problems  that  occur 
whenever  two  allied  tongues  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  any  form  of  speech  other  than  in- 
termediate. The  languages  thus  related  may  be 
ever  so  like,  or  ever  so  unlike ;  but  as  long  as 
they  are  liker  to  each  other  than  those  which 
intervene,  the  problem  in  question  will  recur, 
viz,,  the  reconstruction  of  the  state  of  things 
that  existed  before  the  original   separation,   and 


96  AREAS   OF   CONNECTION. 

which  is  implied  by  the  existing  points  of  simi- 
larity. 

It  occurs  in  Great  Britain.  No  matter  how 
unlike  the  Scotch  Gaelic  and  the  Welsh  may 
be,  they  are  more  like  than  the  English  that  lies 
between  them. 

It  occurs,  as  will  soon  be  seen,  in  the  ethnology 
of  Greece. 

It  occurs  in  the  question  before  us  ;  leading 
to  the  inference  that  if  both  the  Keltic  of  the 
Cisalpine  Gauls,  and  the  Etruscan  of  Circum- 
padane  Etrurians  were  less  unequivocally  Indo- 
European  than  the  Slavonic  of  the  Norici  and 
the  Umbrian  of  the  Umbri,  the  original  occupants 
of  the  intervening  area  must  have  been  neither 
Gauls  nor  Etrurians,  but  one  of  four  things — 

1 .  Members  of  the  class  to  which  the  Umbrians 
belonged — 

2.  Members  of  the  class  to  which  the  Norici 
belonged — 

3.  Partly  Norici  and  partly  Umbrians — 

4.  Transitional  populations  sufficiently  different 
from  each  to  constitute  a  third  class,  but  suffi- 
ciently allied  to  each  to  be  more  Norican  or  more 
Umbrian  than  aught  else. 

Such  is  the  way  in  which  here,  as  elsewhere, 
we  must  attempt  the  reconstruction  of  what  may 
be  called  areas  of  original  connection. 

In  the  present  case,  then,  north-eastern  Italy 


AREAS  OF  CONNECTION.  97 

IS  originally  divided  between  the  true  Italians, 
akin  to  the  Umbri,  and  the  extinct  or  modified 
Slavonians  of  Liburnia  and  the  country  of  the 
Veneti. 

Apulia,  Calabria,  and  Sicily,  to  which  we  may 
now  attend,  I  imagine,  in  the  earliest  times,  to 
have  been  occupied  by  the  ancestors  of  the  Greeks, 
a  doctrine  to  which  I  direct  the  careful  consi- 
deration of  scholars ;  since  it  implies  a  great  change 
in  all  our  preconceived  opinions,  and  not  only 
makes  the  Hellenes  of  Greece  as  foreign  to 
Hellas,  as  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  once  to  Eng- 
land, but  deduces  them  from  Italy,  and  that  by 
means  of  a  maritime  migration — a  maritime  mi- 
gration which  implies  not  only  that  they  were  a 
population  foreign  to  the  Greek  soil,  but  that 
their  descendants  were  a  mixed  stock;  since  no 
mode  of  migration  is  less  favourable  to  the  purity 
of  the  migrant  population  than  a  sea-voyage, 
where  space  is  limited  and  females  are  an  in- 
cumbrance. Such  was,  undoubtedly,  the  origin 
of  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  jEgean 
Islands.  Such,  I  believe,  to  have  been  the  origin 
of  the  Greeks  of  Peloponnesus  and  Northern 
Hellas. 

The  observations  on  the  relation  between  the 
Slavonic  and  Latin  languages  have  prepared  the 
way  to  this  hypothesis,  wherein  the  necessity  of 

ft 


98  AREAS   OF    CONNECTION. 

finding  a  geographical  connection  between  cognate 
forms  of  speech  recurs. 

Now  the  connection  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  is  a  fact  that  few  have  denied, 
and  no  one  has  explained.  Unless  we  derive  one 
from  the  other,  we  must  refer  both  to  some 
common  source.  But  the  locality  of  this  mother 
tongue  is  difficult  to  fix — so  difficult  that  no 
satisfactory  doctrine  concerning  it  has  ever  been 
exhibited.  Greece  is  an  eminently  small  area, 
and  Italy  is  of  no  great  size ;  for  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  ancient  country  of  the  nations 
whose  language  was  allied  to  the  Latin,  and, 
through  the  Latin,  to  the  Greek,  are  not  found  far 
north  of  the  Tiber,  at  the  beginning  of  the  truly 
historical  period.  The  Valley  of  the  Arno  was 
Etruscan  ;  the  Valley  of  the  Po,  Gallic,  Etrus- 
can, and  Liburnian ;  so  that  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  more  western  of  the  two  classical  languages 
was  the  Tiber,  and  that  of  the  most  eastern  one 
the  Ambracian  Gulf — for  farther  than  this  it  is 
not  safe  to  carry  Ancient  Greece.  Perhaps  it 
cannot  be  carried  so  far. 

Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  the  scholar  who 
recognises  the  fundamental  affinity  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages,  and  at  the  same  time 
requires  either  an  original  geographical  continuity 
or  a  series  of  migrations  to  account  for  it,  has  a 
vast  mass   of  difficulties   to   deal   with:    and   I 


AREAS    OF    CONNECTIO]N\  99 

cannot  think  that  these  have  ever  been  fairly 
met.  The  intervening  area  which  lies  between 
the  Hellenes  and  Italians  is  of  no  ordinary  magni- 
tude. It  is  not  only  larger  than  either  Greece 
or  Italy  separately,  but  larger  than  both  put 
together.  It  is  this  if  we  give  it  the  most  favour- 
able conditions  imaginable.  It  is  this  if  we  sup- 
pose that,  on  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Gulf, 
there  existed  in  early  times  a  population  from 
which  the  Italians  on  one  side,  and  the  Greeks 
on  the  other,  are  descended — at  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic  Gulf,  and  no  where  else. 

I  limit  this  hypothetical  population  to  a  small 
area,  because,  as  no  trace  of  its  existence  can  be 
found,  the  smaller  it  is  supposed  to  have  been,  the 
more  easily  its  extinction  is  accounted  for;  and 
I  place  it  in  a  locality  equidistant  to  Greece  and 
Italy,  because,  by  so  doing,  the  amount  of  its 
extension  is  diminished.  The  more  distant  we 
make  it,  the  more  improbable  that  extension 
becomes ;  and  the  larger  it  is,  the  more  improbable 
its  disappearance.  I  have  put  it,  then,  under  the 
most  favourable  conditions.  Yet,  even  here,  its 
position  is  eminently  doubtful.  The  first  nations 
which  we  meet  with  in  these  quarters  are  the 
Liburnians  ;  and  few  have  a  less  claim  to  be  con- 
sidered either  Greek  or  Italian,  or,  yet,  inter- 
mediate to  the  two. 

The  bolder  doctrine  is  the  assumption  of  what 


100  AREAS   OF   CONNECTION. 

has  been  called  The  Thraco-Pelasgic  stock.  This 
maintains  that  the  extinct  populations  and  lan- 
guages of  Thrace,  Moesia,  and  Pannonia  were  inter- 
mediate to  those  of  the  two  peninsulas,  and  that, 
by  a  sort  of  divarication,  the  western  extension  of 
their  southern  members  peopled  Italy,  and  the 
eastern,  Greece.  This  view  has  the  advantage 
of  being  difficult  to  refute — since  it  is  the  current 
belief  that  the  original  languages  of  the  three 
countries  in  question  are  extinct,  and  that,  as 
nothing  is  known  about  them,  it  is  as  easy  to  say 
that  they  were  the  mother  tongues  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  as  aught  else.  The  assumed  displace- 
ments, however,  are  enormous ;  besides  which, 
the  ancient  Thracians  must  have  been  more 
Greek  than  were  the  ancient  Italians ;  which  is 
unlikely. 

But  the  great  difficulty  in  fixing  a  locality  for 
this  Thraco-Pelasgic,  or  Helleno-Latin  language 
(call  it  what  we  will)  lies  in  a  reason  which 
the  reader  of  the  first  chapter  of  this  book  may, 
perhaps,  anticipate.  It  lies  in  the  existence  of 
the  Albanian  language ;  a  fact,  which  I  said, 
on  the  onset,  was  one  of  such  importance  as  to 
require  being  treated  as  a  special  and  separate 
preliminary  to  the  ethnology  of  Greece  and  Italy, 
as  well  as  on  its  own  merits.  Whence  came  this 
remarkable  tongue,  and  whence  the  populations 
who  speak  it  ?     For  a  long  time  both  were  consi- 


AREAS   OF  CONNECTIOI^r.  101 

lered   recent  introductions, — introductions   from 

fCaucasus,  perhaps,  or   from  some   other  locality 

■  equally  plausible.     But  this  origin  is  no  longer 

idmitted  by  any  competent  investigator  ;  and  the 

lodern  Skipetar,   or  Albanians,  are  now  looked 

,  upon  as  the  descendants  of  the  ancient  Illyrians, 

md  of  such  Epirots  as  were  not  truly  Greek.     So 

that  the  Thraco-Pelasgic  hypothesis  is  materially 

[weakened  by  the  inconvenient  locality,  and  the 

impracticable  antiquity  of  this  nation.     So  awk- 

[wardly  does  it  lie,  that  it  fills  up  full  two-thirds 

[of  the  area  required  for  the  hypothetical  tongue 

fin  question. 

Hence   the   line   of  such   transitional  popula- 

'  tions  as,  by  connecting  Greece  and  Italy,  account 

For   the   ethnological   affinities  of   their  respec- 

[tive  occupants,  must  not  be  a  straight  one.     On 

the  contrary,  it  must  trend  round  the  Albanian 

)untry,  via  Macedon,  Thrace,  Servia,   Croatia, 

id  Carniola. 

The  assumption  of  a  stream  of  population  from 

fAsia  Minor  across  Turkey,  Servia,  and  the  parts 

the  north  of  the  Adriatic  is  the  Thraco-Pelas- 

fian   doctrine   modified;    since   it   deduces  both 

mgues  from  a  common  source. 

The  assumption  of  a  similar  stream  across  the 

islands  of  the  ^gean  does  the  same.     Yet  each 

is  beset  with  difficulties.     If  one  fact  be  better 

supported  than  another,  it  is   that  the   ^gean 


102  AREAS  OF  CONNECTIOl^. 

islands  and  the  Asiatic  coast  were  peopled  from 
Greece  rather  than  vice  versa. 

So  serious,  then,  are  the  difficulties  involved  in 
the  notion  of  either  a  continuous  Helleno-Italian 
population  originally  extended  from  Greece  to 
Italy  but  subsequently  displaced,  or  an  isolated 
intermediate  locality  from  w^hich  both  Hellenes 
and  Italians  were  given-off  as  colonies,  that  I  would 
rather  believe  that  the  likeness  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  languages  proved  nothing  more  than  is 
proved  by  the  presence  of  Norman-French  words 
in  English  (viz.,  simple  intermixture  and  inter- 
course) than  admit  it.  I  do  not  ask  the  reader 
to  go  thus  far.  I  only  request  him  to  compare 
the  size  of  the  Greek  and  Italian  areas  with  the 
size  of  the  parts  between  them,  which  are  neither 
one  nor  the  other.  This  will  lead  him  to  the 
threshold  of  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  usual 
views  as  to  the  origin  of  the  Hellenic  population 
within  Hellas  itself;  and,  provided  that  he  be 
willing  to  examine  patiently  rather  than  reject 
hastily,  an  apparent  paradox,  it  will  also  prepare 
him  for  a  train  of  reasoning  of  which  the  result 
will  be  a  Greece,  or  Hellas,  as  different  from  the 
Greece  or  Hellas  of  the  current  historians,  as 
England  is  diffisrent  from  Britain.  By  which  I 
mean  that,  if,  by  the  term  Greece  we  denote  the 
present  kingdom  of  King  Otho,  irrespective  of 
its  population,  and  with  a  view  only  to  the  portion 


AREAS  OF  COI^NECTIOI^.  103 


I  the  earth's  surface  that  it  constitutes,  the 
ellenes  will  come  out  Greek,  just  as  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  are  British,  i.e.,  not  at  all.  Instead  of 
this,  the  true  and  primitive  Greeks  will  be  the 
analogues  of  the  now  extinct  or  modified  Britons 
of  Kent  and  Northumberland,  the  Hellenes  being 
those  of  the  Angle,  Frisian,  and  other  Germanic 
conquerors  of  our  island. 

But  to  catch  it  in  its  full  clearness,  the  point  of 
view  from  which  the  physical  history  of  the  Hel- 
lenes is  to  be  contemplated,  the  critic  should  go 
somewhat  further  than  this,  and  attempt  his  own 
reconstruction  of  the  state  of  those  European  po- 
pulations which  existed  when  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages,  with  their  several  points  of  like- 
ness and  difference,  were  first  developed. 

Let  him  try  to  do  this  by  assuming  that  the 
necessary  movements  and  displacements  were 
made  by  land,  and  he  will  find  that  it  must  be 
by  ringing  changes  upon  such  suppositions  as  the 
following — 

1.  Occupancy  of  Greece  from  Italy, 

2.  Occupancy  of  Italy  from  Greece. 

3.  Extension  into  Greece,  on  one  side,  or — 

4.  Into  Italy,  on  one  side,  or — 

5.  Into  both  Greece  and  Italy — from  some 
common  point  different  from  each. 

6.  Absolute  continuity  of  a  Helleno-Latin  po- 
pulation from  Calabria  to  the  Morea. 


104  AREAS  OF  CONNECTION. 

In  each  of  the  first  two  alternatives  there  is 
the  displacement  of  some  population  earlier  than 
the  one— Greek  or  Italian,  as  the  case  may  be 
— which  we  supposed  to  have  been  immigrant. 

In  the  three  next  there  is  the  same ;  with  the 
additional  difficulty  of  fixing  the  point  from 
which  the  migrations  diverged. 

In  the  last  there  is  the  enormous  displacement 
requisite  to  account  for  the  utter  absence  of  any 
population  transitional  to  the  Hellenic  and  Italian 
north  of  the  Po  on  one  side,  and  the  Peneus  on 
the  other. 

But  this — as,  indeed,  are  all  the  others — is 
reducible  to  a  question  of  displacement. 

Now  it  is  the  last  four  of  the  previous  alterna- 
tives that  are  the  most  complicated.  They  are 
also  those  to  which  the  current  opinions  most  in- 
cline. The  term  Thraco-Pelasgic  indicates  this: 
since  it  shows  that,  instead  of  deriving  the  Greeks 
from  the  Italians,  or  the  Italians  from  the  Greeks, 
both  are  deduced  from  a  third  population. 

Upon  this  third  population  we  must  concen- 
trate our  attention  ;  and  define  our  ideas  as  to  its 
conditions. 

If  continuous,  it  must  have  been  of  consider- 
able magnitude :  and  even  if  isolated,  it  can 
scarcely  have  been  very  small.  Now  the  greater 
we  make  it  the  more  mysterious  is  its  present 
non-existence. 


AREAS   OF  COIfNECTIO]!^. 


105 


It  must  have  spoken  a  language  intermediate 
in  character  to  the  Hellenic  and  Italian.  Unless 
it  did  this  it  is  of  no  avail.  To  be  simply  like 
the  Greek  is  not  enough  ;  nor  yet  to  be  v^^hat  is 
called  Indo-European.  It  must  be  sufficiently 
transitional  in  character  to  act  as  a  link. 

It  must  have  been  either  ancient  Albanian, 
which  it  cannot  have  been,  ancient  Thracian, 
which  it  is  unlikely  to  have  been,  or,  some  third 
language  winding  itself  into  continuity  between 
the  most  south-western  Thracians  and  the  most 
north-eastern  Illyrians,  i.e.,  populations  akin  to 
the  Skipetar. 

So  much  for  its  conditions  on  the  side  of  Greece. 
As  it  approached  Italy  they  must  been  equally 
mysterious.  Unless  we  suppose  the  Liburnians 
and  Venetians  to  have  spoken  such  a  tongue  it 
must  have  lapped  round  the  area  of  the  northern 
populations  of  the  Adriatic,  so  as  to  be  thrown 
considerably  westwards.  But,  to  all  appearances, 
Circumpadane  Etruria  began  where  the  Veneti 
and  Liburni  left  off. 

The  special  classical  scholar  best  knows  how 
far  the  Pelasgi — how  far,  indeed,  any  ancient 
populations — fulfil  these  conditions.  Of  course, 
by  assuming  an  unlimited  amount  of  displace- 
ment and  migration  they  can  be  made  to  do  so. 
But  such  assumed  displacements  may  be  ille- 
Igitimately  large.     Whether  they   are  so  or   not 


106  GREEK   ELEMENTS 

depends   upon    the    extent    to    which    they   are 
necessary. 

Such  is  a  sketch  of  the  diiSculties  involved  in 
the  hypothesis  that  Greece  and  Italy  vrere  appro- 
priated by  similar  populations  by  means  of  mi- 
grations by  land. 

A  little  consideration  vv^ill  show  that  by  looking 
to  the  sea  as  the  medium  of  communication  we 
get  rid  of  the  gravest  of  the  previous  difficulties ; 
though  it  must  be  admitted  that  we  get  another 
in  the  place  of  it.  It  may  fairly  be  urged  that 
conquests  by  sea  are  less  complete  and  perfect 
than  those  by  land;  so  that  though  they  may 
be  admitted  as  explanatory  of  settlements  on 
the  coast,  they  are  insufficient  to  account  for 
the  reduction  of  the  more  inland  and  mountainous 
parts  of  a  country.  This  is  an  objection  as  far 
as  it  goes  :  yet  it  would  be  hazardous  to  say  that 
either  Greece  was  more  purely  Hellenic,  or  Italy 
more  exclusively  Italian,  at  the  beginning  of 
their  I  respective  historical  areas,  than  England 
was  Anglo-Saxon  in  the  reign  of  Alfred.  Yet 
the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest  was  maritime. 

That,  at  the  very  earliest  dawn  of  the  his- 
torical period,  there  was  a  great  amount  of 
Greek  elements  in  Southern  Italy  is  universally 
admitted  ;  the  only  doubtful  point  being  as  to 
the  way  of  explaining  them.  They  fall  into 
two  classes — 


IN   SICILY   AND   SOUTHERN   ITALY.  107 

1.  Those  that  are  accounted  for  by  colonization 
pom  Greece  to  Italy  within  the  historical  period. 

2.  Those  that  are  not  so  explained. 
It  is  the  latter  upon  which  a  partial  confirmation 
the  doctrine  of  the  present  chapter  is  based. 

a.  The  .^olus  of  Homer,  who  in  spite  of  some 
difficulties  of  detail,  we  must  look  upon  as  the 
eponymus  of  ^olia,  has  his  residence  in  the 
islands  off  the  south  coast  of  Italy  ;  and,  it  must 
be  remembered,  that,  except  so  far  as  this  tEoIus 
is  the  eponymus  he  is  here  considered  to  be. 
Homer  knows  nothing  of  the  Cohans. 

b.  The  Ionian  Sea  is  the  sea  that  washes  the 
coasts  of  Italy,  and  not  the  sea  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  shores  of  Ionian  Asia. 

c.  Old  geographical  names,  significant  in  the 
Greek  language,  are  commoner  in  Southern  Italy 
and  Sicily,  than  in  Greece  itself;  as  Phalacrium 
Promontorium,  Nebrodes  Mons,  Clibanus  Mons, 
Petra,  Xiphonia  Promontorium,  Cro talus  Flu- 
vius,  &c.  Nowhere  are  these  commoner  than  in 
the  Sicanian  country,  the  part  generally  con- 
sidered the  most  barbarian,  but,  more  probably, 
the  part  where  the  character  of  the  aborigines 
survived  longest  —  Panormus,  Ercta,  Bathys 
Fluvius,  Cetaria  (probably  a  fishery),  Drepanum, 
Selinus,  ^githallus.  Almost  all  the  islands  have 
names  more  or  less  Greek,  Strongyle,  Phoeni- 
codes,  Ericodes,  and  a  great  number  ending  in 


108  GREEK   ELEMENTS 

-usa,  as  Pithec-M5a,  &c.     Ortygia,  is  mentioned 
by  Hesiod. 

d.  The  names  which,  in  Greek,  end  in  -oet? 
take,  in  Southern  Italy,  the  older  forms  in  -ntum 
— as  MaXoet9,  Malevew^wm;  2o\oe69,  ^o\\entum, 

e.  The  Greeks  themselves  recognise  the  ex- 
istence of  colonies  planted  by  their  forefathers  in 
Italy  long  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  the  his- 
torical period,  e,  g,,  that  of  Cumae,  seventeen  gene- 
rations before  the  Trojan  war.  This  may  fairly 
be  construed  into  an  admission  of  their  ignorance 
as  to  their  origin. 

/.  The  epithet  Magna  in  Magna  Grcscia  as 
applied  to  Southern  Italy,  is  an  adjective  which  in 
every  other  instance  of  its  use,  denotes  the  mother 
country — the  colony  being  designated  by  the  con- 
trary epithet  little, 

g.  The  cultus  of  the  eminently  Greek  goddess, 
Demeter,  was  in  the  eminently  Sikel  district  of 
Henna. 

h.  The  recognition  of  Xuthus,  the  father  of 
Ion,  an  eponymus  strange  to  Hellenic  Greece, 
as  one  of  the  six  sons  of  jEoIus,  in  the  Sicilian 
genealogies,  genealogies  which  are  evidently  of 
independent  origin. — "  Xuthus  was  king  over 
the  Leontine  country  which,  even  now,  is  called 
Xuthia ;  Agath5rrnus,  of  the  Agathyrnian  country, 
who  built  the  city  called  after  him,  Agathymus." 
— Diod.  Sic.  V.  8. 


^^»     rri 


IN    SICILY.  109 


The  foregoing  facts  are  unimportant  and  un- 
satisfactory if  taken  by  themselves.  Neither  do 
they  constitute  the  main  argument  in  favour  of 
the  Italian  origin  of  the  Greeks.  That  lies  in 
the  necessity  of  effecting  a  geographical  continuity 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  and  the 
inordinate  difficulty  of  doing  so  by  means  of  an 
extension  of  either  of  the  areas  northwards. 

The  weightiest  objection  to  it  is  the  following. 
If  the  southern  Italians  were  so  closely  allied  to 
the  Greeks  as  the  present  doctrine  makes  them, 
how  came  the  later  colonists  not  to  discover  the 
affinity  ?  Surely  the  settlers  at  Croton,  Sybaris, 
Thurii,  and  the  towns  of  Sicily,  would  not  have 
failed  to  find  out  that  they  had  cast  their  lot 
amongst  cousins  and  kinsmen  of  their  own  stock, 
if  such  had  actually  been  the  case.  They  would 
have  found  out  that  the  populations  with  which 
they  came  in  contact  spoke  Greek — possibly  with 
solecisms — but  still  Greek.  I  reply  to  this  by 
stating  that,  if,  in  (say)  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  the  English  descendants  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  conquerors  of  Britain  in  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  centuries  had  colonized  the  coasts  of  their 
mother  country,  they  would  not,  unless  they  had 
hit  upon  a  few  exceptional  localities,  have  found 
out,  from  the  evidence  of  language  or  manners, 
that  they  had  revisited  the  land  of  their  fathers. 
The  language  had  changed,  and  the  population 


110  GREEK   ELEMENTS. 

had  been  mixed  and  displaced.  The  Franks  had 
conquered  the  tribes  originally  akin  to  the  Saxons. 
Now  that  which  the  Franks  did  with  the  Saxons  of 
Germany,  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttians  seem  to 
have  done  with  the  original  Greeks  of  Italy. 
Such  is  the  doctrine  ;  such  the  chief  objection  to 
it;  and  such  the  answer. 

Another  arises  from  the  following  words : — 
KV^LTTOV,  \i7ropc<;,  iraTivrj,  KdTivo<;,  /jloltov,  yiXv, 
and  veTToSe?.  They  are  glosses  from  the  Greek 
writers  of  Sicily.  They  are  not  Greek.  They 
are  Latin — cubitus,  lepus,  patina ,  catinus,mutuumy 
geluy  nepotes,  I  admit  this  to  be  weighty.  Never- 
theless, as  the  Sicilian  dialects  are  considered  to 
connect  the  Greek  with  the  Latin,  their  presence 
is  not  conclusive.  Besides  this,  the  Sikeli  were, 
probably,  more  Italian  than  the  Sikani. 

There  were  Epirote  (Skipetar)  elements  in 
Southern  Italy;  since  several  names  were  com- 
mon to  both  sides  of  the  Ionian  Sea — Chaones, 
Molossi,  Acheron,  Pandosia. 

There  were  Pelasgians  (whatever  the  Pelasgians 
may  have  been)  also ;  as  is  to  be  inferred  from 
the  mention  of  the  slaves  of  the  colonists  being  sq 
called. 

The  name  by  which  the  south  Italian  stock, 
the  parent  stock  of  the  Hellenes,  is  best  denoted 
is  uncertain.  The  adjective  CEnotrian,  from  the 
CEnotri,  is  suggested. 


SIKANI   AKD    SIKELS.  Ill 

It  is  wholly  unnecessary  to  assume  the  existence 
of  a  new  stock  for  the  population  of  ancient 
Sicily.  The  south  Italians  seem  to  have  extended 
themselves  to  the  island,  and  when  we  first  find 
them  there,  we  also  find  fresh  evidence  of  their 
Greek  character,  as  has  already  been  shown  in 
the  geographical  names  of  the  Sikanian  area. 

At  the  same  time  they  must  have  fallen  into 
two  or  more  well-marked  varieties ;  varieties  which 
are  easily  accounted  for.  There  were  the  earliest 
occupants  of  the  island,  and  there  were  recent 
immigrants  from  Italy,  differing  from  each  other 
as  the  present  Danes  of  Iceland  do  from  the 
native  Icelanders.  For  in  this  way  I  interpret 
the  difference  between  the  Sik-e\i  and  the  Sik- 
ani,  not  doubting  that  both  come  from  the  same 
root ;  although  the  authority  of  Thucydides  is 
against  this  view. 

Thucydides's  account  is  as  follows.  In  the 
western  part  of  the  island  were  the  Sikani,  from 
the  river  Sikanus,  driven  thence  by  the  Ibe- 
rians. Then  came  the  Sikeli,  driven  from  Italy 
by  the  Opiki.  Thirdly,  there  were  the  Elymi  of 
Eryx  and  Egesta,  who  were  originally  Trojans,, 
but  who  escaped  to  Sicily,  and  settled  themselves 
on  the  Sikanian  frontier,  having  built  the  cities 
of  Eryx  and  Egesta.  A  few  Phocians  (also  from 
Troy)  joined  them,  having  first  gone  over  to 
Libya.       The    Phoenicians   held    certain    settle- 


112  GREEK    ELEaiE]!fTS. 

ments  on  the  southern  coast ;  Motye,  Soloeis,  and 
Panormus.  Lastly,  came  the  Sikeliots,  or  Greeks 
of  Sicily,  whose  colonies  were  as  follows  — 

a.  Naxos  from  Khalcis  in  Euboea ;  Leontini 
and  Katana  from  Naxos. — Ionic. 

h.  Syracuse  from  Corinth;  Acrae,  Casmenae, 
and  Camarina,  from  Syracuse. 

c.  Megara  from  Megara ;  Trotilus  and  Selinus 
from  Megara. — Doric. 

d.  Gela  from  Rhodes  and  Crete ;  Akragas  from 
Gela. — Doric. 

e.  Zankle  from  the  Campanian  Cuma,  itself 
Chalcidic  in  origin. — Ionic. 

A  reference  to  his  own  text  justifies  oar  disbelief 
in  the  essential  difierence  between  the  Sikani  and 
the  Sikeli,  implied  by  Thucydides.  That  such 
was  the  case  was  the  opinion  of  only  the  historian ; 
whilst,  on  his  own  showing,  it  was  not  the  opi- 
nion of  the  Sicanians  themselves.  After  the 
Cyclopes  and  Laestrygones  the  "  Sikani  are  the 
first  inhabitants.  As  they  say  themselves,  they 
are  even  earlier,  being  autokhthones ;  but,  in 
real  truth,  they  are  Iberians  from  the  river 
Sikanus,  driven  out  by  the  Ligyes;  and  from 
them  the  island  as  well  was  named  Sikania,  being 
first  called  Thrinakria."*  The  Iberic  doctrine  is 
evidently  an  inference   from   the   name   of    the 

*  Observe  that  the  oldest  name  of  the  island  is  Greek. 


m  SICILY.  113 

iver ;  an  inference  which  the  incompatible  opi- 
nion of  the  Sikanians  themselves  opposes,  and,  in 
my  mind,  outweighs.  But  the  objections  do  not 
end  here.  The  evidence  of  Diodorus  is  as  fol- 
lows ;  i.  e.f  that  Philistus  supported  the  Thucy- 
didean  view,  but  that  Timaeus  proved  him  wrong, 
and  clearly  showed  that  they  were  Autokhthones. 
Hence,  the  testimony  that  we  set  against  that  of 
Thucydides  is  the  testimony  of  an  equally  com- 
petent local  antiquary,  though  an  inferior  gene- 
ral historian :  for  less  influence  than  this  cannot 
well  be  attributed  to  the  name  of  Timaeus. 

The  statement  respecting  the  Phocians  is  re- 
markable. It  shows  the  existence  of  Greeks 
anterior  to  the  colonial  era  ;  Greeks  whose  pre- 
sence was  inexplicable,  except  under  the  idea  of 
a  return  from  a  doubtful  expedition. 

Who  the  Elymaeans  really  were  is  uncertain. 
Assuming  that  they  constituted  a  variety  of  the 
Sicilian  population,  and  asking  whence  they  may 
best  be  derived,  the  answer  is  Sardinia — Middle 
Italy,  and  Mauritania.  In  this  latter  case  they 
belong  to  the  original  Libyan,  Gaetulian,  Numi- 
dian  or  Mauritanian  stock,  rather  than  the  Punic. 
Or  they  may  have  been  Tuscans.  Possibly,  Phoe- 
nicians direct  from  Phoenicia,  or  Canaanites,  or 
Jews. 

That  true  Mauritanians,  as  opposed  to  the 
Phoenicians  of  Carthage,  existed,  in  at  least  one 


114  CARTHAGINIANS. 

Sicilian  locality,  is  a  reasonable  inference  from 
the  name  of  a  town  on  the  eastern  coast — Thapsus, 
This  is  a  word  which  now  only  occurs  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  but  has  a  meaning  in 
the  modern  Berber,  where  thifsah  means  sand;  a 
likely  name  for  the  low  coast  of  the  part  which 
Virgil  calls  Thapsum  jacentem. 

In  the  Elymsean  country  were  two  rivers,  one 
called  Simo'isy  and  the  other  Scamander,  How 
they  came  to  be  called  so  is  unknown.  The 
effect  was  to  engender  the  story  of  the  Trojan 
colony ;  unless,  indeed,  we  choose  to  argue  that 
such  a  phenomenon  proves  too  much,  and  is  evi- 
dence in  favour  of  the  reality  of  a  Trojan  war, 
and  a  subsequent  dispersion  of  Trojan  colonists. 
Or  they  have  been  Sardinian  TO-enses. 

The  Carthaginian  blood  in  Sicily  was  certainly 
foreign,  and  the  Elymaean  was  probably  so.  That 
of  the  Sikels  was  allied  to  the  older  Sikanian ; 
perhaps,  as  the  Danish  of  the  Northmen  in  Eng- 
land was  to  that  of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Such  were 
the  elements  that  came  into  the  island.  But,  ac- 
cording to  our  hypothesis,  there  was  an  efflux  out 
of  it,  to  ^olian  and  Ionian  Greece,  and,  perhaps, 
to  some  of  those  parts  of  Asia  and  the  ^gean 
sea-board,  which  are  claimed  by  the  Hellenes  as 
colonies  from  their  own  shores.  Subsequent  to 
this  there  w^ent  on  the  contest  between  the  Sikani 
and    Sikeli,  even   as   the   struggle   between   the 


I 


SICILIAN  HISTORY.  115 


Danes  and  Saxons  went  on  in  Alfred's  time ; 
whilst  Sikeliot  Greeks  and  Phoenicians  were 
making  settlements  on  the  coasts,  and  meditating 
a  contest  for  the  supremacy  over  both.  First 
from  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy  to  Greece ;  then 
from  Greece  to  Sicily  and  Southern  Italy —  such 
is  the  hypothetic  line  of  migration,  analogies  to 
which  may  be  found  elsewhere.  Sumatra,  for 
instance,  and  the  Malaccan  Peninsula  are  consi- 
dered to  stand  in  the  same  relation.  The  island 
(Sumatra)  is  first  peopled  from  the  Peninsula, 
the  tribes  then  occupying  it  being  comparatively 
rude  and  savage.  But,  in  the  island,  civilisation 
increases,  just  as  the  South  Italians  are  supposed 
to  advance  in  their  social  condition  when  trans- 
planted to  Hellenic  soil.  Thirdly,  the  islanders 
(the  Sumatrans),  after  the  development  of  a  power- 
ful kingdom,  make  settlements  on  the  mother- 
country  (the  Peninsula  of  Malacca),  and  (an  im- 
portant circumstance  in  our  criticism)  partly  from 
the  effect  of  changes  upon  themselves,  and  partly 
from  changes  in  the  parent  stock,  no  recognition 
of  the  original  aifinity  takes  place.  The  abori- 
gines of  Malaya  look  upon  their  sovereigns  of  the 
sea-coast  as  strangers,  themselves  being  consi- 
dered what  a  Greek  would  call  barbarians.  The 
true  affinity  is  only  known  to  the  European  eth- 
nologists. So  far,  then,  is  the  present  hypothesis 
from  being  deficient  in  analogies  to  support  it. 


116  SICILY  A  ROMAN  PROVINCE. 

The  historical  period  begins  with  the  contest 
between  the  Greeks  and  the  Carthaginians  as  to 
who  should  hold  in  vassalage  the  Sikeli  and 
Sikani ;  with  a  subordinate  series  of  jealousies 
between  the  Doric  and  Ionic  branches  of  the 
Greeks.  Until  about  300  B.C.,  the  struggle  is, 
comparatively,  uncomplicated.  Afterwards,  how- 
ever, the  free  introduction  of  mercenaries  from 
Southern  Italy,  of  Opican,  Samnite,  and  Lucanian 
origin,  engenders  new  elements  of  admixture. 
The  Carthaginian  power  attains  its  height  about 
this  time.  Then  the  island  becomes  the  battle- 
field between  the  two  republics,  and  from  250  B.C., 
to  450  A.D.  (in  round  numbers),  a  period  of  700 
years,  Sicily  is  a  Roman  province. 

That  the  legionaries  and  officials  were  Roman 
in  their  political  relations  only,  is  nearly  certain. 
Ethnologically  they  must  have  been  chiefly  South 
Italian.  And  the  female  part  must  have  been 
native  Sicilian.  What  does  this  mean — Greek, 
Carthaginian,  Sikanian,  or  Sikelian  ?  Any  one 
in  particular,  or  a  little  of  each  ?  The  paramount 
fact  for  this  question  is  the  evidence  to  the  ex- 
istence of  Sikeli  and  Sikani  up  to  the  reduction 
of  the  island.  From  then  we  hear  no  more  of 
them :  not,  however,  because  they  are  known  to 
have  become  extinct,  but  because  their  relations 
to  Greece  have  ceased,  and  the  historians  who 
might  mention  them  are  wanting.     Rome  had  no 


r 


DUCETIUS.  117 


contemporary  literature ;  and  when  it  had,  the 
Sicilian  was  known  only  as  opposed  to  the  Ro- 
man ;  for  the  writers  use  the  word  Siculi,  in  a 
general  sense,  making  no  distinction  between  the 
Sikelj  the  Sikan,  and  the  SiJceliot.  They  were 
treated,  however,  as  Greeks,  not  as  barbarians ; 
and  the  Latin  language  was  not  forced  upon  them. 
This  is  an  inference  from  more  than  one  expres- 
sion in  Cicero's  Oration  against  Verres,  where 
they  are  spoken  of  as  Greek. — "  Novum  est  in 
Siculis,  quidem,  et  in  omnibus  Graecis  monstri 
simile." — ii.  11.  65,  Again,  "  Itaque  eum  non 
solum  patronum  istius  insulse  sed  etiam  sotera 
inscriptum  vidi  Syracusis." — Ihid.  QS. 

If  the  Romans  disturbed  the  ethnology  but 
little,  the  question  is  reduced  to  the  extent  to 
which  the  Greek  colonies  either  displaced  the 
earlier  inhabitants,  or  effected  an  intermixture. 
Of  Ducetius,  a  Sikel  king,  powerful  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  island,  we  hear  in  the  times  between 
Gelon  and  the  Athenian  invasion  ;  and  of  other 
less  important  chiefs  (some  with  Greek  names), 
we  hear  until  the  first  Punic  war.  They  are 
always,  however,  Sikel.  Of  the  Sikanians,  Ely- 
maeans,  and  the  so-called  Phocian  Greeks,  little  or 
nothing  is  said.  At  the  downfall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  Sicily  seems  to  have  been  Greek  in 
speech,  and  Sikelo-Sikanian,  strongly  crossed  with 
Greek,  in  blood.    Then  came  the  piracies  of  Gen- 


118  ARABS 

seric  and  his  Vandals ;  then  the  invasion  of  the 
Goths  of  Theodoric ;  then  the  island  is  reconquered 
by  Belisarius  as  a  general  of  the  Eastern  empire; 
none  of  which  events  v^ere  of  much  ethnological 

importance.      Not  so  the  events  of 
A.D.  827—878.        ,         .     ,  rr<T        A      1 

the  ninth  century.  Ihe  Arab  con- 
quest was  a  physical  as  well  as  a  moral  influence. 
"With  a  fleet  of  one  hundred  ships  and  an 
army  of  seven  hundred  horse,  and  ten  thousand 
foot,  the  Arabs  landed  at  Mazara,  but  after  some 
partial  victories,  Syracuse  was  delivered  by  the 
Greeks,  and  the  invaders  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  feeding  on  the  flesh  of  their  own  horses;  in 
their  turn  they  were  relieved  by  a  powerful  re- 
inforcement of  their  brethren  of  Andalusia :  the 
largest  and  western  part  of  the  island  was  gradu- 
ally reduced,  and  the  commodious  harbour  of 
Palermo  was  chosen  for  the  seat  of  the  naval  and 
military  power  of  the  Saracens.  Syracuse  pre- 
served about  fifty  years  the  faith  which  she  had 
sworn  to  Christ  and  to  Caesar.  In  the  last  and 
fatal  siege,  her  citizens  displayed  some  remnant 
of  the  spirit  which  had  formerly  resisted  the 
powers  of  Athens  and  Carthage.  They  stood 
above  twenty  days  against  the  battering-rams 
and  catapultae,  the  mines  and  tortoises  of  the  be- 
siegers ;  and  the  place  might  have  been  relieved, 
if  the  mariners  of  the  imperial  fleet  had  not  been 
detained  at  Constantinople  in  building  a  church 


m  SICILY.  119 

the  Virgin  Mary.  The  deacon,  Theodosius, 
with  the  bishop  and  clergy,  was  dragged  in  chains 
from  the  altar  to  Palermo,  cast  into  a  subterra- 
nean dungeon,  and  exposed  to  the  hourly  peril  of 
death  or  apostasy ;  his  pathetic,  and  not  inelegant 
complaint,  may  be  read  as  the  epitaph  of  his 
country.  From  the  Roman  conquest  to  this 
final  calamity,  Syracuse,  now  dwindled  to  the 
primitive  isle  of  Ortygia,  had  insensibly  declined ; 
yet  the  relics  were  still  precious ;  the  plate  of 
the  cathedral  weighed  five  thousand  pounds  of 
silver ;  the  entire  spoil  was  computed  at  one 
million  of  pieces  of  gold  (about  four  hundred 
thousand  pounds  sterling),  and  the  captives  must 
have  out-numbered  the  seventeen  thousand  Christ- 
ians who  were  transported  from  the  sack  of  Tau- 
romenium  into  African  servitude.  In  Sicily,  the 
religion  and  language  of  the  Greeks  were  eradi- 
cated; and  such  was  the  docility  of  the  rising 
generation,  that  fifteen  thousand  boys  were  cir- 
cumcised and  clothed  on  the  same  day  with  the 
son  of  the  Fatimite  caliph.  The  Arabian  squa- 
drons issued  from  the  harbours  of  Palermo,  Bi- 
serta,  and  Tunis ;  a  hundred  and  fifty  towns  of 
Calabria  and  Campania  were  attacked  and  pil- 
laged; nor  could  the  suburbs  of  Rome  be  de- 
fended by  the  name  of  the  Caesars  and  apostles. 
Had  the  Mahometans  been  united,  Italy  must 
have  fallen  an  easy  and  glorious  accession  to  the 


120  THE  NORMANS. 

empire  of  the  prophet ;  but  the  caliphs  of  Bagdad 
had  lost  their  authority  in  the  west ;  the  Agla- 
bites  and  Fatimites  usurped  the  provinces  of 
Africa ;  their  emirs  of  Sicily  aspired  to  indepen- 
dence, and  the  design  of  conquest  and  dominion 
was  degraded  to  a  repetition  of  predatory  in- 
roads."* 

A.D.  1029,  Aversa  was  founded;  a  fact  com- 
mon to  the  history  of  .both  Sicily  and  Southern 
Italy;  from  which  the  rule  of  the  Normans  in 
Sicily,  Apulia,  and  Calabria  dates.  Its  details 
are  those  of  a  romance ;  the  deeds  of  a  small  but 
unscrupulous  body  of  adventurers,  too  few  to 
impress  any  new  character  on  the  stock  with 
which  they  came  in  contact.  Still  they  require 
mention,  though  but  a  handful  of  men.  They 
were  of  mixed  blood  themselves ;  Scandinavian 
on  the  fathers',  French  on  the  mothers',  side ; 
French,  too,  in  speech.  They  were  recruited  by 
heterogeneous  accessions  from  Southern  Italy. 

"  Si  vicinorum  quis  perniciosus  ad  illos 
Confugiebat,  eum  gratanter  suscipiebant : 
Moribus  et  lingua  quoscunque  venire  videbant 
Informant  propria,  gens  efficiatur  ut  una."t 

The  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  sees  the 
^^^^       break-up  of  the  Norman   power,  and 

A.D.  1204.         c.-    -1  p  1  1  . 

bicily  transierred  to  the  empire ;  one 

^  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  clvi. 
f  Gulielmus  Appulus,  lib.  i.,  from  Gibbon,  Ivi. 


INVASIONS    OF  ITALY. 


121 


rf  the  more  notable  facts  of  this  transfer  being 

le  removal  of  sixty  thousand  Saracens  to  Nocera, 
the  south  of  Italy.  Saracen,  however,  though 
means  Mahometan,  by  no  means,  necessarily, 

leans  Arab.     Then  we  have  the  dominion  of  the 
"'ranch,   ending  with  the   Sicilian  Vespers,  and 

le  death  of  eight  thousand  of  them.     Catalo- 

ians,  Genoese,  Modern  Greeks,  and  Albanians  (?) 
complete  the  list  of  the  elements  of  intermixture 
in  Sicily;  notwithstanding  which,  and  notwith- 
itanding  all  the  previous  immigrations,  I  beheve 

le  basis  of  the  stock  to  be  Sikel  chiefly,  and 
lext  to  Sikel,  Greek. 
With  continental  Italy  the  elements  of  admix - 

ire,  until  the  time  of  Odoacer,  were  due  to  the 
)arbarian  legions  in  the  service  of  Rome,  rather 

lan  to  the  inroads  of  any  barbarian  con-  a.d.  400. 
[uerors;  since  Alaric,  with  his  Visigoths,  a.d.  406. 

Ladagaisus,    with   his   medley   of   Slavono-Ger- 

lans,  Genseric  with  his  Vandals,  and  Attila  with 
ds  Huns,  made  but  ephemeral  impressions.     Of 

le  army,  however,  of  Radagaisus,  a  large  pro- 

jortion  was  sold  as  slaves.     Odoacer's  conquest 

somewhat    more    permanent; 
,  .,        T        ,  ^     \  T         '      A.D.  476-490. 

milst  the  elements  he  mtroduced 

ire  uncertain.     Reasons,  however,  may  be  given 

Tor  referring  the  Skiri,  at  least,  and  possibly  the 

Heruli  and  Rugii  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Huns 

and  Bulgarians — the  Turk,  a  stock  from  which 


122  ANALYSIS   OF 

few  grafts  were  transplanted  to  Italy ;  though  a 
Bulgarian  colony  in  Samnium  was  existing  in  the 
time  of  the  Lombards,  and  possibly  a  few  other 
similar  oifsets  besides. 

The  Gothic  conquest,  however,  was  not  only 
permanent,  but  it  was  the  first  of  three  from  the 
same  stock.  Themselves,  probably, 
of  mixed  blood,  having  taken  it  up 
during  their  various  settlements  on  the  Lower 
and  Middle  Danube,  from  the  Slavonians  and 
Turks  of  the  countries  with  which  they  came  in 
contact,  the  Ostrogoths,  to  the  amount  of  not 
less  than  two  hundred  thousand,  settled  in  the 
most  favoured  parts  of  the  country,  and,  dominant 
as  they  were  amongst  a  population  of  serfs,  must 
have  played  much  the  same  part  in  Italy  as  the 
Normans  did  in  England.  And  when  Italy  is 
recovered  by  Narses  and  Belisarius,  more  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after,  they  are  only 
ejected  from  power — not  bodily  put  out  of  the 
land. 

As  has  been  stated  already,  they  were  only  the 
first  of  three — we  may  say  of  four — ^hordes  of  in- 
vaders, each  of  which  was  more  or  less  Germanic ; 
for  the  Lombard  dominion  rapidly  succeeded  the 
Ostrogoth,  and,  besides  this,  partial  invasions  of 
Bavarians,  Suabians,  and  Alemanni  were,  for  a 
time,  successful.  But  the  Lombards  ruled  over 
all  Italy  with  the  exception  of  the  Exarchate  of 


MODERN    ITALY.  123 

Lavenna,  till  the  conquest  by  Charlemagne,  and 
^er    the   present   kingdom   of    Naples,  ^^ 

ider  the  name  of  the  Duchy  of  Bene- 
fentum,  until  the  Norman  Conquest.     Of  all  the 
rermanic  elements,  the  Lombard  is  possibly  the 
:eatest.     But  it  was  no  pure  strain. 

The    infusion    of    Slavonic    and    Turk    blood 

longst  the  followers  of  Alboin  was  considerable. 

For  Calabrian  and  Apulian  Italy  the  history  is 
yearly  the  same  as  that  of  Sicily. 

Now,  if  after  the  sketch  of  these  numerous 
elements  of  intermixture  we  ask  which  part  of 
Italy  is  most  Roman,  the  answer  gives  but  a 
small  proportion  of  that  illustrious  blood.  Taking 
the  narrowest  view  of  the  question,  and  distin- 
guishing the  Latin  area  from  the  Oscan,  Umbrian, 
and  Etruscan,  the  amount  is  inordinately  insig- 
nificant— and  Rome  itself  was  but  a  mixture. 
By  generalizing,  however,  our  language,  and 
making  Roman  identical  with  Italian,  we  gain  a 
larger  area,  coinciding  pretty  closely,  though  not 
exactly,  with  the  States  of  the  Church.  This  is 
the  least  mixed  part  of  Italy,  as  well  as  the  most 
Italian  ;  the  least  mixed  because  it  is  south  of 
the  pre-eminently  German,  and  north  of  the  pre- 
eminently Arab  area  of  invasion,  and  the  most 
Italian,  because  the  original  basis  was  Umbrian, 
and  Sabine  rather  than  Etruscan,  Gallic,  Ligu- 
rian,  or  CEnotrian. 


124  LOMBARDS. 

Piedmont,  perhaps,  is  the  next  in  order  of 
comparative  purity ;  at  least,  as  far  as  modern  in- 
termixture is  concerned:  the  oldest  basis  being 
Ligurian. 

In  Lombardy  the  elements  are  Umbrian,  Etrus- 
can, Gallic,  Roman,  Ostrogoth,  and  Lombard; 
in  the  Venetian  territory,  Umbrian,  Etruscan, 
Gallic,  Roman,  Ostrogoth,  Lombard,  and  Slavonic 
(Liburnian) ;  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  Auso- 
nian  and  CEnotrian,  with  Greek,  Arab,  and  Nor- 
man superadditions. 


CHAPTER  V. 

IMPORTANCE     OF      CLEARNESS     OF     IDEA     RESPECTING     THE     IM- 
PORT   OF   THE   WORD    "RACE."  THE     PELASGI. —  AREA     OF 

HOMERIC      GREECE.    —  ACARNANIA      NOT      HELLENIC.  THE 

DORIANS. EGYPTIAN,   SEMITIC,    AND    OTHER    INFLUENCES. — 

HISTORICAL    GREECE. — MACEDONIANS. —  GREECE    UNDER   ROME 

AND    BYZANTIUM. INROADS    OF   BARBARIANS, — THE    SLAVONIC 

CONQUEST. —  RECENT   ELEMENTS    OF   ADMIXTURE. 

It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  difficult  ques- 
tion as  to  the  relative  influences  of  the  external 
efiects  of  soil,  climate,  physical  conditions,  the 
admixture  of  foreign  blood,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  foreign  examples  on  the  one  side,  and 
those  of  what  is  called  race  on  the  other,  never 
rises  to  a  greater  degree  of  importance  than  it 
does  in  the  ethnology  of  Ancient  Greece.  For, 
in  our  current  language,  we  consider  race  to  mean 
certain  original  differences  of  organization,  facul- 
ties, and  capacities  stamped  upon  different  divi- 
sions of  the  human  species  from  the  beginning; 
innate  qualities,  as  distinguished  from  mere  de- 
velopments ;  internal  elements  of  the  original 
material  upon  which  the  external  agencies  of 
climate,  soil,  and  examples  act  in  the  different 


126  QUESTION    OF    RACE. 

degrees  of  its  receptivity,  as  contrasted  with  the 
various  agencies  themselves ;  and  in  this  current 
language,  many  writers,  who  would  shrink  from 
the  conclusions  to  which  the  term  logically  leads, 
unconsciously  indulge.  I  say  unconsciously^  be- 
cause it  is  nearly  certain  that,  out  of  ten  writers 
who  talk  about  race,  and  assign  to  the  word  a 
meaning  essentially  the  same  as  the  one  just  ex- 
hibited, nine  would  be  unwilling  to  deny  the 
unity  of  our  species — unity  meaning  descent  from 
the  same  pair.  Yet  between  this  and  a  system 
of  special  interpositions  the  advocate  of  the  effects 
of  race  has  no  alternative.  How  can  there  be 
two  original  capabilities  for  the  reception  of 
either  moral  or  physical  influences,  and  tlie  evo- 
lution of  intellectual  phenomena  out  of  them,  in 
different  members  of  a  family  descended  from  a 
single  pair  ? 

AU  that  can  have  had  a  beginning  since  the 
beginning  of  the  species  itself  is  the  manifesta- 
tion of  the  several  capacities  by  outward  and 
appreciable  signs.  The  capacity  itself  must  have 
existed  from  the  first ;  and  the  writer  who  con- 
siders that  too  great  weight  is  attached  to  ex- 
ternal accidents,  and  too  little  to  innate  qualities, 
unless  he  admit  either  the  doctrine  of  a  mul- 
tiplicity of  protoplasts,  or  extra-natural  changes 
in  the  faculties  of  the  progenitors  of  certain 
favoured  nations,  when  he  talks  about  race,  only 


QUESTION    OF   RACE.  127 

throws  back  the  evolution  of  the  distinctive  cha- 
racters of  the  populations  he  may  be  considering 
to  some  period  more  or  less  early.  If  the  remote 
ancestors  of  the  Greeks  and  the  remote  ancestors 
of  the  Turks  be  referable  to  some  common 
parentage,  it  is  mere  verbiage  to  refer  the  dif- 
ferences between  them  to  race,  as  an  ultimate 
and  primary  cause.  It  is  no  cause,  but,  itself, 
aii_effect — an  effect  of  influences  immeasurably 
early  in  their  actions,  but  still  an  effect.  For  it 
is  evident  that  of  race,  as  it  is  called,  there  can 
be  but  three  causes — original  difference  of  parent- 
age, preternatural  changes  in  the  faculties  or 
organization  of  certain  members  of  one  common 
family,  or  the  operation  of  the  ordinary  agencies 
of  climate,  nutrition,  and  ideas. 

I  neither  deny  nor  assert  that  any  one  of  these 
three  causes  is  the  true  one.  I  only  draw  atten- 
tion to  a  remarkably  common  inconsistency.  A 
very  little  amount  of  ethnological  literature  will 
satisfy  any  one  who  makes  the  search  that  the 
number  of  writers  who  write  about  race,  and  who 
are,  nevertheless,  wholly  unprepared  for  either 
of  the  first  two  explanations  of  its  origin,  is  very 
great.  So  that  they  admit  the  third,  and  the 
third  only.  If  so,  why  make  so  much  of  the 
distinction  ? 

In  the  special  question  before  us  we  are  in 
great  danger  of  overvaluing  this  undefined  ele- 


128  THE   PELASGI. 

merit ;  imagining  that  intellectual  pre-eminence 
of  the  highest  kind  was  the  original  endowment 
of  a  section  of  mankind  called  Hellenes.  That 
these  Hellenes  were  so  favoured  is  certain,  but 
that  they  were  a  race  at  all  is  doubtful.  Unless 
the  necessity  of  connecting  the  Latin  and  Greek 
languages  in  geography  as  well  as  in  philology 
have  been  overvalued,  and,  along  with  it,  the 
difficulty  of  doing  so  by  any  simple  extension  of 
the  two  areas,  the  natural  inference  from  the 
necessary  consequences  of  a  maritime  migration 
follows  as  a  matter  of  course,  viz.,  the  proba- 
bility of  the  blood  on  the  mother's  side  having 
been  different  from  that  of  the  father — the  one 
Italian,  the  other  native  to  the  soil.  If  so,  there 
is  an  Hellenic  language,  an  Hellenic  literature, 
an  Hellenic  influence  in  the  world's  history.  But 
there  is  no  Hellenic  stock.  The  tongue  belongs 
to  Hellas,  and  the  blood  to  Italy. 

Subject,  then,  to  the  correctness  of  the  Ita- 
lian hypothesis,  what  was  the  native  stock  of 
Hellas  ?  Pelasgic.  "What  means  this  ?  The 
proper  place  for  this  inquiry  is  the  chapter  on 
the  ethnology  of  Turkey,  for  in  two  Turkish 
localities  only  have  any  Pelasgi  existed  within 
the  historical  period.  A  negative  statement, 
however,  will  find  place  here.  Whatever  the 
Pelasgi  were,  they  were  not,  at  one  and  the 
same  time,  the  earliest  occupants  of  Hellas,  and 


EARLY  HELLAS,  129 


1^^  population  belonging  to  the  same  class  with 
the  Hellenes.  The  reasons  which  lie  against 
making  the  Hellenes  aboriginal  to  Greece  lie 
also  against  any  other  Hellenoeid  population. 

The  magnitude  of  the  earliest  historical  Hel- 
lenic area  is  of  importance.  Let  Greece  under 
the  leadership  of  Agamemnon  be  as  truly  Hel- 
lenic as  Kent  and  Essex  were  Anglo-Saxon  in 
the  reign  of  Alfred.  What  does  it  prove  in  the 
way  of  the  occupants  being  aboriginal  ?  As  little 
as  the  English  character  of  the  counties  in  ques- 
tion at  the  time  referred  to.  Four  centuries — or 
even  less — of  migration  may  easily  have  given  us 
all  the  phenomena  that  occur ;  for  the  area  is 
smaller  than  the  kingdom  of  Wessex,  or  North- 
umberland, and  the  country  but  little  more  im- 
practicable. 

Hence,  if  we  sufficiently  recognise  the  small- 
ness  of  the  Hellenic  area,  no  difficulties  against 
the  doctrine  of  an  original  non-Hellenic  popula- 
tion will  arise  on  the  score  of  its  magnitude.  It 
was  as  easily  convertible  from  non-Hellenic  to 
Hellenic  as  Cumberland  and  Northumberland 
have  been  from  British  to  English. 

And  that  that  area  was  actually  very  small 
indeed  is  evident  to  any  inquirer  who  will  take 
up  the  measure  of  it  without  any  prepossessions 
in  favour  of  its  magnitude,  and  limit  his  Hellas 
to  those  parts  only  which  can  be  shown  to  have 


1.30  EARLY   HELLAS. 

been  Greek ;  in  order  to  do  which  he  must  draw 
no  undue  inferences  in  favour  of  the  identity  of 
the  Hellenic  and  Phrygian  languages  from  the 
negative  fact  of  Homer  saying  nothing  about 
interpreters ;  build  nothing  on  the  ubiquity  of 
the  Pelasgi,  every  one  of  whose  migrations  is 
as  unsupported  by  historical  evidence,  as  the 
migration  of  JEneas  to  Italy,  or  that  of  Antenor 
to  Venice  ;  and,  lastly,  satisfy  himself  with  the 
"  Catalogue  of  the  Ships,"  as  the  earliest  geogra- 
phical notice  of  ancient  Greece.  I  think  that 
this  list  is  more  likely  to  contain  populations 
which  were  not  Hellenic  than  to  omit  any  that 
were ;  and,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
Acarnanians,  I  imagine  that  this  is  the  current 
opinion.  The  Acarnanians  alone  of  all  the  Hel- 
lenes are  said  to  have  taken  no  part  in  the  Trojan 
war ;  and  on  the  strength  of  their  non-interven- 
tion we  hear  of  them  some  nine  hundred  years 
afterwards,  putting  in  a  claim  for  the  good  offices 
of  the  Romans,  the  supposed  descendants  of 
those  Trojans  whom  the  other  Hellenes  so  cruelly 
conquered,  and  the  Acarnanians  so  generously 
left  alone.  Yet  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
because  the  Acarnanians  were  Greeks  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war,  they  were  Greeks  in 
the  ninth  century  B.C.,  any  more  than  it  fol- 
lows that  because  the  men  of  Monmouth  are 
English  at  the   present   moment   they  were   so 


EARLY  HELLAS.  131 

during  the  heptarchy.  What  should  we  say 
to  the  writer  who,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria, should  say  that  the  only  people  of  England 
who  took  no  part  in  the  wars  of  the  Saxons 
against  the  Britons  were  the  Cornishmen  ?  Surely 
we  should  accuse  him  of  an  anachronism,  and 
suggest  the  fact  of  his  Cornishmen  ha;ving  been 
at  the  time  in  question,  no  Saxons  at  all,  but 
Britons,  The  same  reason  applies  to  the  state- 
ments concerning  the  Acarnanians;  inasmuch 
as  it  is  highly  probable  that  they  are  absent  from 
the  Homeric  list  of  Greeks,  because  they  were 
other  than  Greek  in  respect  to  their  nationality. 
It  was  only  when  the  Greek  frontier  extended 
itself  northwards  that  they  became  Hellenized. 
Then,  too,  it  was  that  the  later  writers  who 
fancied  that  they  must  always  have  been  what 
they  were  in  their  own  days,  superadded  the 
doctrine  of  their  having  been  Hellenic  to  the 
fact  of  their  non-appearance  in  the  Homeric 
catalogue.  For  it  must  be  remembered  that, 
even  in  the  third  century  B.C. — nay  even  at  the 
present  moment — the  Acarnanians  are  a  frontier 
population,  in  contact  with  the  non-Hellenic 
Illyrians  of  old,  and  the  non-Hellenic  Skipetars 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  It  must  also  be 
remembered  that  notice  of  their  absence  from 
Troy  is  nowhere  to  be  found  in  the  Homeric 
poems.     No   passage  runs   to   the    effect   "  that 


132  EARLY   HELLAS. 

the  Acarnanians  alone  took  no  share  in  the  war 
under  the  walls  of  sacred  Ilion,  but  remained 
ingloriously  at  home."  If  it  were  so,  the  previous 
hypothesis  would  be  futile. 

Upon  the  whole,  I  think  that  Acarnania  was  in 
the  same  category  with  the  nearly  opposite  island 
of  Corey ra — Greek  in  the  time  of  the  historian, 
but  not  Greek  in  the  time  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

So  little,  however,  depends  upon  this  view  of 
the  character  of  the  earliest  Acarnanians  that 
the  notice  of  them  is  rather  an  episodical  piece 
of  detail,  than  anything  affecting  the  general 
question  of  the  size  of  Homeric  Greece.  It  may 
have  contained  Acarnania,  and  still  have  been 
small  enough  for  the  purposes  suggested,  i,e,, 
small  enough  to  have  been  converted  from  non- 
Hellenic  to  Hellenic  within  a  very  few  centuries. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  Greece  the  most  northern 
members  of  the  confederation  are  the  Thessalians 
and  Perrhaebi  ;  but  whether  the  latter  were  Hel- 
lenic is  uncertain.  We  may  admit  them,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  so.  Macedon  and  Thrace 
were,  certainly,  non-Heilemc  ;  so  much  so,  that 
it  is  only  by  first  peopling  them  with  Pelasgi, 
and  then  making  the  Pelasgi  what  may  be  called 
Hellenoeid — or  Greek-like — that  the  semblance  of 
any  close  ethnological  afiinity  with  the  true  and 
undoubted  Greeks  of  the  Homeric  confederacy 
can  be  obtained. 


I 


THE    DORIANS.  loS 


If  we  leave  the  continent  and  turn  to  the 
islands,  the  greater  part  of  the  Cyclades  and 
Sporades  are  in  the  same  predicament  with  Acar- 
nania.  In  the  "  Catalogue  of  the  Ships,"  Crete, 
Rhodes,  Syme,  Carpathus,  Cos,  Nisuros,  and  the 
Calydnian  Islands  are  alone  named. 

Such  are  the  reasons  for  believing  that  the 
true  and  undoubted  Hellenic  area,  was,  at  the 
time  of  the  Homeric  poems,  quite  small  enough 
to  have  received  the  whole  of  its  population  from 
some  other  country,  and  that  by  means  of  boats 
and  ships. 

The  two  elements  of  the  Hellenic  population 
in  its  simplest  form,  are — 1.  The  native  ;  2,  The 
Italian ;  either  of  which  may  have  been  more  or 
less  mixed  ;  though  the  proof  of  it  is  imprac- 
ticable, and  the  analysis  out  of  the  question. 

One  of  the  tribes  of  the  ancient  Skipetar  area 
was  the  Hylleis;  and  one  of  the  Doric  heroes 
was  Hyllus.  I  connect  these  names,  the  latter 
being  the  eponymus  to  the  former.  When  the 
Dorians  conquer  Peloponnesus,  Hyllus  assists 
them.  This  suggests  the  likelihood  of  those  im- 
migrants whose  first  settlements  were  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  who  from 
thence  effected  conquests  southwards  and  else- 
where, having  done  so  in  alliance  with  certain 
members  of  the  Illyrian,  Epirote,  or  Skipetar 
stock.     If  so,  the  Dorian   conquests   were    only 


134  EGYPTIAN  ELEMENTS. 

partially  Hellenic,  so  that  there  is,  at  least,  an 
element  of  intermixture  here. 

Others  are  referable  to  the  eastern  coast.  Asia 
Minor,  Egypt,  and  Phoenicia  all  contributed  to 
mix  the  Hellenic  blood.  In  respect  to  Asia 
Minor  we  may  relegate  the  account  of  the  descent 
of  Pelops  on  Peloponnesus  to  the  region  of  un- 
satisfactory traditions,  and  still  have  a  large 
amount  of  facts  in  favour  of  the  infusion  of 
Eastern  blood  from  this  quarter  being  consider- 
able. These  lie  in  the  character  of  the  islanders 
of  the  jEgean.  Whatever  else  they  may  have 
been,  they  were  partially  Carian  on  one  side,  and 
partially  Greek  on  the  other. 

The  claims  of  Egypt  to  have  contributed  to 
the  Greek  stock  have  been  closely  criticized  by 
Colonel  Mure.  His  broad  position,  that  the 
introduction  of  foreign  settlers  is  generally  fol- 
lowed by  visible  and  definite  influences  on  the 
language,  is  carried  to,  perhaps,  ah  undue  extent, 
since,  to  take  an  example  from  our  own  history, 
the  effect  of  the  Danes  in  England  is  by  no 
means  commensurate  with  their  real  importance 
as  invaders.  Or,  perhaps,  his  views  are  limited 
to  the  criticism  of  a  nation's  literature ;  in  which 
case  a  foreign  settlement,  which  gave  nothing 
new  to  the  speech  of  the  people,  to  their  arts, 
to  their  records,  or  to  their  mythology,  would, 
to  the  historian  of  its  literature,  be  no  foreign 


I 


EGYPTIAN    ELEMENTS.  135 


settlement  at  all.  The  ethnologist  is,  to  a  cer- 
tain degree,  in  the  same  position ;  but  only  to  a 
certain  degree.  At  any  rate,  however,  the  fact 
of  an  Egyptian  element  in  the  early  Hellenic 
population  is  an  important  point  in  the  ancient 
commerce  of  the  Mediterranean,  even  if  it  be 
nothing  more. 

I  admit  the  likelihood  sagaciously  suggested 
by  Colonel  Mure,  of  the  parts  between  Syria  and 
Egypt  being,  in  reality,  Semitic*  rather  than 
Egyptian,  yet  passing  for  Egyptian  in  the  eyes  of 
a  Greek;  so  that  much  which  is  really  Phoenician, 
or  Jewish,  may  have  been  considered  as  Coptic. 
Nevertheless,  a  few  fragmentary  facts  seem  to 
indicate  a  true  introduction  of  Egyptian  ideas 
and  blood. 

a.  The  name  of  the  city  Thehcs,  common  to  both 
Greece  and  Egypt,  is  one  of  these. 

h.  The  reproach  cast  in  the  teeth  of  Achilles  in 
respect  to  Penthesilea  by  Thersites,  which  can 
only  be  alluded  to  here,  but  which  is  explained 
in  Herodotusf  by  a  reference  to  Egyptian  manners 
is  another. 

c.  The  word  Barharos,  which  the  evidence  of 
Herodotus,  combined  with  the  fact  of  the  native 
name  of  the  Africans  immediately  to  the  south 
of  Egypt  being  Berber  at  the  present   moment, 

*  By  Semitic  is  meant  Jewish  and  Phoenician  collec- 
tively, t  Lib.  ii. 


136  EGYPTIAN   ELEMENTS. 

induces  me  to  consider  it  as  an  absolute  Egyptian 
word. 

d.  The  word  Africa  is  easily  explained  by 
supposing  that  the  Egyptians  took  it  from  the 
Afer  nations  of  Abyssinia,  and  so  gave  it  the 
Greeks,  but  it  is  not  explicable  by  deducing  it 
from  a  Semitic  source. 

e.  The  names  lolchos  and  Colchis, — How  comes 
Jason,  in  sailing  from  a  part  of  Thessaly  named 
lolchos,  to  reach  a  part  of  Asia  with  a  name  all 
but  identical  ?  or,  changing  the  expression,  how 
comes  the  Colchos  of  the  Black  Sea  which  Jason 
visits,  to  have  had  a  name  so  like  that  of  the  birth- 
place of  the  hero  who  visits  it?  These  things, 
however  little  they  may  be  set  down  to  the  chap- 
ter of  accidents,  are  rarely  accidental.  Yet  they 
cannot  be  connected  with  each  other.  The  evi- 
dence, however,  of  Herodotus  to  the  existence  of 
Egyptian  customs  in  Colchis  (evidence  which, 
although  it  will  not  prove  the  identity  of  the 
Georgian  stock  with  the  Egyptian,  suggests  the 
idea  of  a  partial  settlement)  supplies  an  explana- 
tion. Both  Colchos  and  lolchos  may  have  been 
Egyptian. 

Farther  remarks  upon  the  assumption  that  the 
Phoenicians  only  (and  not  the  Egyptians)  were  a 
maritime  people,  will  occur  in  the  ethnology  of 
Crete. 

The  influences  from  Syria  and  Palestine  were 


i 


JEWISH    INFLUEJN'CES.  137 


either  Phoenician  or  Jewish,  and  by  no  means 
exclusively  Phoenician.  The  selling  of  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  Judah  into  captivity  beyond  the 
sea,  is  a  fact  attested  by  Isaiah.  Neither  do  I 
think  that  the  eponymus  of  the  Argive  Danai 
was  other  than  that  of  the  Israelite  tribe  of  Dan ; 
only  we  are  so  used  to  confine  ourselves  to  the 
soil  of  Palestine  in  our  consideration  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  Israelites,  that  we  treat  them  as  if 
they  were  adscripti  gleb^,  and  ignore  the  share 
they  may  have  taken  in  the  ordinary  history  of 
the  world.  Like  priests  of  great  sanctity,  they 
are  known  in  the  holy  places  only — yet  the  sea- 
ports between  Tyre  and  Ascalon,  of  Dan,  Ephraim, 
and  Asher,  must  have  followed  the  history  of  sea- 
ports in  general,  and  not  have  stood  on  the  coast 
for  nothing.  What  a  light  would  be  thrown  on 
the  origin  of  the  name  Pelop -o-nesus,  and  the 
history  of  the  Pelop-id  family,  if  a  bond  fide 
nation  of  Pelopes,  with  unequivocal  affinities, 
and  cotemporary  annals,  had  existed  on  the 
coast  of  Asia  !  Who  would  have  hesitated  to 
connect  the  two  ?  Yet  with  the  Danai  and  the 
tribe  of  Dan  this  is  the  case,  and  no  one  con- 
nects them. 

In  these  remarks  I  by  no  means  say  that  the 
resemblance  is  not  accidental;  although  my  opi- 
nion is  against  it  being  so.  I  only  say  that  a 
conclusion  which  would  have  been  suggested  if 


138  PHCEXICIAN   mFLUEI^CE. 

the  tribe  of  Dan  had  been  Gentiles  has  been 
neglected  because  they  were  Jews. 

That  the  alphabet  and  the  weights  and  mea- 
sures of  Greece  are  Phoenician  is  likely  enough ; 
indeed,  from  the  extent  to  which  the  habit  of 
circumcision  was  strange  to  the  Hellenes,  the 
evidence  is  in  favour  of  the  coasts  of  Phoenicia, 
and  the  Philistine  country  having  supplied  a 
larger  immigration  than  those  of  the  Holy  Land. 
In  respect  to  the  infusion  itself  of  Semitic  blood, 
whatever  may  have  been  the  details  of  its  origin, 
it  was  considerable ;  and  has  generally  been  ad- 
mitted to  have  been  so. 

The  absolute  admixture  of  Thracian  and  Phry- 
gian blood  on  the  soil  of  Hellas,  anterior  to  the 
Macedonian  conquest,  is  a  complex  question. 

If  the  Pelasgi  belonged  to  either  of  these  fami- 
lies, it  was,  of  course,  exceedingly  great.  But 
the  ethnological  position  of  the  Pelasgi  has  yet 
to  be  considered.  Even  if  they  did  not,  an  im- 
portant question  still  stands  over ;  since  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Thracian  bards  and  the  Phrygian 
musicians,  however  much  it  has  been  either 
wholly  or  partially  doubted  by  late  writers,  was 
admitted  by  the  ancient  Greeks  themselves.  Then 
there  is  the  Trojan  war,  an  event,  which,  however 
fabulous  in  its  details,  has  some  basis  in  fact. 
Lastly,  there  is  the  belief  at  the  beginning  of 
the  historical  period  of  the  existence  of  Thracians 


I 


HOMERIC    GREECE.  189 


Boeotia.  All,  however,  upon  these  points 
that  is  indicated  at  present  is  the  caution  against 
excluding  Thracian  blood  from  Hellas  on  the 
mere  strength  of  its  barbaric  character.  It  is 
also  added  that,  until  the  ethnology  of  Thrace 
has  been  dealt  with,  the  evidence  in  favour  of 
the  Italian  origin  of  the  Greek  language  is  in- 
complete. 

The  extent  of  the  Hellenic  area  at  the  date 
of  the  Homeric  "  Catalogue  of  Ships,"  has  been 
given.  The  majority  of  the  ^gean  islands  were, 
then,  other  than  Greek.  On  the  coasts,  how- 
ever, of  Asia  Minor  portions  of  what  was  after- 
wards Ionia  had  been  colonized.  Teos,  for  in- 
stance, and  Smyrna  are  mentioned  by  name ;  on 
the  other  hand,  the  division  of  the  colonized 
portions  into  jEolia,  Ionia,  and  Doris  is  unno- 
ticed— probably  it  was  unknown  and  non-ex- 
istent. There  are  Dorians,  however,  in  Crete. 
The  Hellenes  are  simply  a  population  of  Thes- 
saly,  the  Pelasgi  allied  to  the  Trojans,  and  cir- 
cumscribed in  area.  Danaoi,  Argeoi,  and  Achaioi 
are  the  nearest  approaches  to  an  equivalent  to  the 
subsequent  term  Hellenes, 

From  the  Homeric  age  until  the  approach  of 
the  Persian  war,  our  notices  of  the  Hellenes  are 
so  nearly  limited  to  the  Greeks  of  Asia,  that  the 
state  of  Thessaly,  Boeotia,  Attica,  and  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus— European  and  Continental  Greece — is 


140  HISTORICAL    GREECE. 

obscure ;  Athens,  however,  and  Sparta  are  the 
parts  that  then  command  notice ;  not  Miletus, 
Smyrna,  or  Lesbos.  Hellas,  too,  as  a  collective 
name,  has  been  developed.  On  the  coast  of 
Asia  there  is  an  ^olis,  a  Doris,  and  an  Ionia, 
all  of  which  the  Hellenes  look  upon  as  settle- 
ments from  corresponding  parts  of  Greece,  and 
there  is  division  of  the  Hellenes  themselves,  of 
considerable  political  importance,  into  two  classes 
— the  Dorian  and  Ionian.  These  differences 
between  their  ovm  age  and  the  Homeric,  the 
great  historians  of  the  Golden  Age  of  Greek 
literature  explained  as  they  best  could.  Are  we 
bound  to  admit  their  explanation  ?  Not  for  the 
Pelasgi,  because  we  can  get  no  definite  doctrine 
at  all  concerning  them.  Nor  yet,  in  my  mind, 
for  the  Doric,  jEolic,  and  Ionic  migrations  in 
their  details.  I  cannot  believe  that  the  Ionic 
dialect  ever  came  out  of  Greece  ;  holding,  that 
nothing  but  a  most  undue  deference  to  authority 
and  opinion  can  deduce  it  directly  from  any 
older  form  of  the  Attic,  And  this  is  but  one 
objection  out  of  many.  Indeed  I  submit  to  the 
reader's  consideration  the  doctrine  that  the  dif- 
ferences expressed  by  the  terms  in  question,  are 
best  explained  and  accounted  for  by  supposing, 
either — 

1 .  A   difference  between   the   original  Italian 
populations;  or — 


I 


HISTORICAL  GREECE.  141 


A  difference  in  the  elements  which  were 
supplied  in  Greece  itself. 

Thus — admixture  and  alliance  with  the  original 
population  of  Thessaly  and  South  Macedon, 
rather  than  with  that  of  Epirus  may  have  deter- 
mined the  ^olian  character ;  admixture  and 
alliance  with  the  South  Epirotes  rather  than  the 
ThessaHans,  the  Doric ;  Semitic  elements  the 
Ionic.  In  the  first  and  last  instances,  there  may 
also  have  been  a  different  starting-point  from 
Italy ;  the  lonians  being  derived  from  the  coast 
that  gave  its  name  to  the  Ionian  Sea,  the  ^olians 
from  the  district  to  which  JEolus  was  the  epo- 
nymus. 

That  such  results  as  these,  wearing,  perhaps, 
the  garb  of  paradoxes,  are  in  strong  contrast  to 
the  recognized  doctrines  of  the  best  Greek  his- 
torians is  undoubted.  No  reader,  however,  should 
dismiss  them  until  he  has  satisfied  himself  that  he 
has  discussed  the  question  ethnologically  as  well 
as  historically ;  until  he  has  clearly  seen  the  extent 
whereto  the  reasoning  which  the  palaeontological 
geologist  applies  to  the  antiquities  of  the  earth's 
crust  (reasoning  wholly  independent  of  historical 
testimony)  is  applicable  to  the  archaeology  of  the 
human  species  also  ;  and  (lastly  and  most  espe- 
cially) until  having  fully  appreciated  the  neces-- 
sity  of  making  the  geographical  and  philological 
connections   of  the  Latin  and   Greek  languages 


142  CHANGES   I]!f   HELLAS. 

coincide,  he  has  experienced  the  difficulty  of 
doing  so  in  the  face  of  the  phenomena  presented 
by  the  present  distribution  of  the  Skipetar,  Dal- 
matian, Croatian,  and  other  interjacent  popu- 
lations. 

There  is,  then,  a  Greek  language,  a  Greek 
literature,  a  Greek  influence  in  literature ;  all 
beyond  doubt.  But  there  is  no  equally  un- 
doubted Greek  stock.  As  far  as  there  is  such 
an  entity,  the  speech  is  in  Hellas,  and  the  blood 
in  Italy. 

Up  to  a  certain  time  the  Hellenic  influence  has 
a  northern  direction,  and  acts  upon  certain  popu- 
lations originally  barbarous,  so  as  imperfectly  to 
Hellenize  them.  Such  is  the  case  with  jEtolia 
and  Macedon,  Afterwards,  however,  the  direc- 
tion of  these  influences  changes,  and  ^tolia  and 
Macedon  contribute  to  dis-Hellenize  (if  so  hybrid 
a  word  may  be  allowed)  Greece.  Before  they  do 
this,  however,  they  have  been  taken  out  of  the 
category  of  barbarism  ;  just  as  would  be  the  case 
if  Anglo-Saxon  England  were  reconquered  by  the 
half- Anglicized  Ireland  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
and  just  as  would  not  have  been  the  case  had  it 
been  conquered  by  the  Ireland  of  Brian  Boru. 
Rome,  too,  respected  the  land  that  she  had  re- 
duced; so  that  the  physical  history  of  Greece 
remains  but  slightly  altered  until  the  period  of 
the  Gothic,  Hun,  and  Slavonic  invasions.     And 


SLAVONIC    CONQUESTS.  143 


^^Bren  Alaric  but  ravaged  the  soil  and  destroyed 
life.  We  nowhere  find  proofs  of  any  introduc- 
tion of  Gothic  blood.  Nor  yet  of  Hun.  It  is 
the  Slavonic  stock  that  has  given  Greece  its 
greatest  foreign  element. 

Why  is  it  that  when  we  compare  a  map  of 
Modern  with  one  of  Ancient  Greece,  such  a 
small  proportion  of  the  old  classical  names,  either 
modified  or  unmodified  in  form,  can  be  found  ? 
Such  is,  undoubtedly,  the  case.  Yet  subject  to 
Turkey  as  Greece  was  until  the  present  century, 
the  majority  of  the  new  names  is  not  Turkish. 
On  the  contrary,  they  are  chiefly  Slavonic.  The 
language  of  the  later  Byzantine  writers  explains 
this.* 

As  early  as  the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury (a.d.  582),  the  movements  set  in  towards 
Greece;  Thrace  and  Macedon  being  overrun  by 
Slavonians.  The  details  here,  however,  are  ob- 
scure, and  there  is  an  occasional  confusion  of 
the  Slaves  with  the  Avars.  The  latter  nation, 
however,  seems  to  have  made  no  notable  settle- 
ment in  Southern  Greece  at  least.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  seventh  century,  Thessaly,  Epirus, 
several  of  the  islands,  and  parts  of  Asia  Minor 
were  overrun.     In  the  ninth,  Macedon  is  called 

*  This  series  of  facts  was  recognized  by  Gibbon ;  is  well 
illustrated  by  Zeuss  (see  Greek  Slavonians),  and  has  been 
carried  to  an  extreme  length  by  Fallermayer. 


144  SLAVONIC   CONQUESTS. 

Slavonia  {^Kka^lvta),  In  the  eleventh,  Athens  is 
sacked,  and  the  inhabitants  driven  to  take  refuge 
in  the  isle  of  Salamis.  Under  Constantine  Por- 
phyrogeneta,  the  presence  of  an  Hellenic  po- 
pulation is  an  exception.  "  In  Macedon,"  he 
writes,  "  the  Scythians  dwell,  instead  of  the 
Macedonians."  Again,  "the  whole  country  is 
Slavonized." 

But  the  most  remarkable  passage  is  the  follow- 
ing, which  shows  that  a  Slavonic  population  is  so 
far  the  rule  that  where  an  approach  to  the  ancient 
population  is  found  it  is  dealt  with  as  a  remark- 
able phenomenon ;  and  that  by  a  Greek  writer : — 
**  It  must  be  known  that  the  inhabitants  of  the 
settlement  {Kaa-rpov)  Maina,  are  not  of  the  race  of 
the  aforesaid  Slaves,  but  of  the  old  Romans,  and 
even  till  the  present  time,  they  are  called  by 
their  neighbours  Hellenes,  from  having  been  ori- 
ginally Pagans  and  idolatrers  like  the  old  Hel- 
lenes."— De  Adm.  Imp.  i.  50. 

Latin  writers,  equally  with  the  Greek,  con- 
sidered Greece  to  be  Slavonic  :  —  "  Inde  (i.e., 
Sicilia)  navigantes  venerunt  ultra  mare  Adrium 
ad  urbem  Manafasiam  in  Sclavinica  terra." — 
From  a  Journal  of  St.  Willibald,  the  writer  of 
which,  by  Manafasia,  means  Napoli  di  Malvasia 
in  the  Morea. 

More  than  this.  The  details  of  some  of  these 
Slavonic  populations  are  given  ;  so  that  we  know 


SLAVONIC  CONQUESTS.  145 

that  there  were  Ezeritse  and  Milengi  in  the 
Morea,  with  Dragovitae,  Sagudatae,  Velegezetae, 
Verzetse,  and  others  in  Northern  Greece. 

In  diminished  numbers,  the  representatives  of 
the  old  Laconians  exist  at  the  present  time.  a.d. 
1573,  they  had  fourteen,  they  have  now  but 
three,  villages — Prasto,  or  the  ancient  Prasiae, 
Kastanitza,  and  Silina.  With  the  exception  of 
their  dialect,  the  Romaic  of  modern  Hellas  is 
said  to  be  spoken  with  considerable  uniformity 
over  the  whole  of  Greece. 

Without  investigating  the  difficult  question  as 
to  the  proportion  of  Slavonic  elements,  it  may 
fairly  be  said  that  Ancient  Greece  is  the  area 
of  a  greatly,  and  Modern  Greece  that  of  an  inor- 
dinately, mixed  stock.  To  this  mixture,  Italians, 
Albanians,  and  other  populations  of  modern 
Europe  have  added. 


146 


CHAPTER  VI. 

RUSSIAN    POPULATIONS,   SAUMATIAN   AND    TURANIAN. SAMOEIDS 

TURANIAN. —  UGRIANS.  —  LAPPS. —  KWAINS. — ESTHONIANS. — 

LIEFS. —  PERMIANS. —  SIRANIANS. VOTIAKS. TSHEREMISS, 

TSHUVATSH,    MORDUIN.  —  LITHUANIANS. MALORUSSIANS    AND 

MUSCOVITES. — THEIR  RECENT  INTRODUCTION. —  THE  SKOLOTI. 
EARLY  DISPLACEMENTS. — UGRIAN  GLOSSES. INDIAN  AFFI- 
NITIES   OF   THE    LITHUANIC. RUSSIAN    POLAND. — ANALYTICAL 

VIEW  OF  THE  PRESENT  POPULATIONS  OF  RUSSIA. ARKHANGEL. 

FINLAND.  — ESTHONIA.  —  LIVONIA.  —  PERM.  SIMBIRSK, 

PENZA.  LITHUANIA. —VOLHYNIA.  KHARKHOV. KOSAKS. 

— KHERSON. TAURIDA. 

Without  asking  too  minutely  what  are  the 
real  boundaries  of  Europe  on  its  eastern  side, 
we  shall  find  it  convenient  to  carry  them  as  far 
as  the  Volga  and  the  Ural  Mountains ;  by  doing 
which  we  include  the  Government  of  the  Don 
Kosaks,  Astrakan,  Orenburg,  Perm,  Vologda, 
and  the  whole  of  Arkhangel.  This  is  being  inor- 
dinately liberal ;  but  it  is  as  well  to  be  so,  because 
three  divisions  of  the  population  of  European 
Russia  are  common  to  the  two  continents ;  and 
hence  the  history  of  more  than  one  of  the  areas 
under  consideration   will   be    incomplete   unless 


SARMATIANS  AND   TURANIANS.  147 

re  trace  its  occupants  to  their  original  home  on 
le  other  side  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  One  of 
lese  areas  is  the  important  country  of  Hungary  ; 
far,  at  least,  as  it  is  possessed  by  the  Asiatic 
lajiars. 

The  great  primary  divisions  of  the  human 
►ecies  to  which  the  population  of  European 
Russia  is  referable,  are  only  two  in  number; 
but  then  each  of  them  is  a  class  of  great  extent 
and  generality ;  falling  into  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions. These  are  the  Sarmatian  and  the 
Turanian ;  Sarmatian  meaning  the  Slavonian  and 
Lithuanian  families  collectively,  and  Turanian 
the  Ugrian  and  Turk.  A  few  months  ago  a 
third  class  would  have  been  requisite,  the  Sa- 
moeid ;  in  order  to  include  the  occupants  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Lower  Petshora  and  the  coasts 
of  the  Arctic  Sea,  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
govermnent  of  Arkhangel.  But  it  has  been 
shown  by  Gabelentz,  from  an  analysis  of  the 
Samoeid  language  that  it  belongs  to  the  same 
class  with  the  Fin,  Lapp,  Permian,  Siranian, 
Votiak,  and  other  Ugrian  tongues. 

The  present  distribution  of  the  Ugrian  popula- 
tions is  not  only  a  point  of  importance  for  its 
own  sake,  but  is  an  indispensable  preliminary  for 
the  inquiry  into  the  earlier  ethnology  of  Russia. 

The  Lapp  branch  of  the  Ugrian  stock  is  common 
to  Russia  and  Scandinavia,  so  that  it  will  be  no- 


148  THE   KWAINS. 

ticed  again  when  Norway  and  Sweden  come  under 
consideration.  It  is  chiefly  in  their  dialect  and 
creed  that  the  two  divisions  differ ;  the  imperfect 
Christianity  of  the  Russian  Lapps  being  that  of 
the  Greek  Church,  and  their  speech,  although, 
I  believe,  intelligible  to  a  Norwegian  Lapp,  being 
stamped  with  several  well-marked  peculiarities. 
It  is  the  structure  of  their  language  that  shows 
them  to  belong  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Kwains 
of  Finland,  the  difference  of  their  complexion 
and  stature  being  considerable  ;  for  the  Lapp  is 
dark-haired,  dark-eyed,  swarthy-skinned,  under- 
sized, and  weak-built,  as  is  the  Samoeid  also. 
The  Lapp  chiefly  occupies  the  country  to  the 
west,  the  Samoeid  that  to  the  east  of  the  White 
Sea. 

Finland  is  the  country  of  a  people  whom  it  is 
best  to  call  Kwains ;  since  Kwain  is  the  native 
name,  and  Fin  is  a  term  which,  from  being  often 
applied  to  the  Lapps  of  Finmark,  creates  confu- 
sion. If  this  designation  be  too  strange,  Fin- 
lander  should  be  strictly  adhered  to.  Viborg 
and  Olonetz  are  parts  of  the  Kwain  area,  with 
but  little  variation  on  the  part  of  their  occupants. 
St.  Petersburg  was  a  part  of  Finland  until  the 
time  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  Esthonia  is  Ugrian 
at  the  present  time.  No  new  inhabitants  of  Es- 
thonia, but,  on  the  contrary,  its  oldest  occupants, 
the  Rahwas,  closely   allied  to  the   proper  Fin- 


THE   VOTIAKS.  149 


I^Randers  of  Finland,  form  the  third  section  of  the 
great  Ugrian  stock.  Xe^^onia,  or  Lief-land,  takes 
its  name  from  an  Ugrian  tribe,  the  Liefs,  a 
tribe  which  from  being  pressed  upon  by  the 
Lithuanians  of  Courland,  is  nearly  extinct  as  a 
separate  substantive  population. 

In  Courland  the  most  western  Ugriaiis  came  in 
contact  with  the  Lithuanians ;  not,  as  is  reason- 
ably believed,  exactly  on  the  banks  of  the  Dwina, 
but  within  the  Province  ;  in  other  words,  the 
ancient  Ugrians  of  these  parts  extended  over  the 
whole  of  Livonia,  and  also  a  little  beyond  it. 
Courland,  however,  is,  upon  the  whole,  essen- 
tially a  Lithuanic  area. 

In  Vologda  and  Perm,  two  closely  allied  mem- 
bers of  a  fresh  branch  of  Ugrians  present  them- 
selves, the  Siranians  and  the  Permians ;  the 
latter  greatly  reduced  and  Russianized.  Perm 
is  bounded  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  along  the 
ridge  of  which  are  the  Voguls,  and,  east  of  the 
Voguls,  the  Ostiaks  of  the  Obi.  But  as  these 
belong  to  Asia,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  they 
are  Ugrian.  The  Votiaks  take  their  name  from 
the  river  Viatka,  as  does  the  government  they 
inhabit. 

Kazan,  Novgorod,  Simbirsk,  and  Saratov,  like 
Viatka  and  Perm,  are  truly  Ugrian  areas,  though 
the  intrusion  of  both  Turk  and  Russian  elements 
has  left  the  original  populations  in  a  fragmentary 


150  THE    LITHUANIAK"  POPULATIONS. 

state*  They  are  represented,  however,  by  the 
Tsheremiss,  the  Tshuvatsh  and  the  Morduin  ;  the 
Tshuvatsh  being  a  problematical  population  from 
the  extent  to  which  their  language  presents  a 
mixture  of  Turk  elements,  and  the  Morduins 
falling  into  three  divisions — the  Mokshad,  the 
Ersad,  and  the  Karatai.  The  absolute  and  un- 
doubted area,  then,  of  the  Ugrians  of  Russia,  as 
it  exists  at  the  present  moment,  notwithstanding 
encroachments  from  both  the  Turks  of  the  east, 
and  the  Russians  of  the  south  and  west,  reaches 
as  far  south  as  the  government  of  Saratov. 

The  present  distribution  of  the  LTthuanian 
populations,  is  second  only  in  importance  to  that 
of  the  Ugrians.  Livonia  is  the  most  convenient 
starting-point.  Here  it  is  spoken  at  present; 
though  not  aboriginal  to  the  province.  The 
Polish,  German,  and  Russian  languages  have  en- 
croached on  the  Lithuanian,  the  Lithuanian  on 
the  Ugrian.  It  is  the  Lett  branch  of  the  Lithu- 
anian which  is  spoken  by  the  Letts  of  Livonia 
(Liefland)  hut  not  hy  the  Liefs,  The  same  is  the 
case  in  Courland.  East  Prussia  lies  beyond  the 
Russian  empire,  but  it  is  not  unnecessary  to  state 
that,  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century,  a  Lithua- 
nian tongue  was  spoken  there.  Vilna,  Grodno, 
and  Vitepsk  are  the  proper  Lithuanian  provinces. 
There,  the  original  proper  Lithuanic  tongue  still 
survives  ;  uncultivated,  and  day  by  day  suffering 


TURKS  OF  RUSSIA.  151 

from  the  encroachment  of  the  Russian,  but, 
withal,  in  the  eyes  of  the  ethnologist,  the  most 
important  language  in  Europe. 

The  Tartar  provinces  come  next,  or,  to  speak 
more  correctly,  the  Turk.  Tartar,  however,  is 
the  usual  term,  and  as  Tartary  is  the  recognised 
name  of  the  country  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian, 
it  is  not  likely  to  be  got  rid  of;  nor  yet  to  be 
changed  into  the  more  correct  form  Tahtah.  The 
stock,  however,  is  that  to  which  the  Ottoman 
Turks  of  Turkey,  along  with  numerous  other 
powerful  and  important  populations,  belong. 
Kasan,  Oremberg,  and  Astrakhan  are  the  chief 
Turk  provinces.  A  portion,  too,  of  New  Russia 
is  Turk.  The  date  of  their  introduction  is  the 
thirteenth  century;  the  empire  to  which  they 
belonged  being  that  of  the  successors  of  Zengis 
Khan. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  distribution  of  the 
Turks  of  Russia  is  explained  by  their  history.  Of 
Southern  Russia,  as  well  as  of  the  south-eastern 
provinces,  they  were  once  the  exclusive  masters. 
This  makes  the  Russian  population  of  Kherson, 
Ekaterinoslav,  the  Don  Kosak  country,  and  the 
greater  part  of  Taurida,  of  recent  origin  ;  indeed, 
it  is  not  only  recent  but  mixed,  and  it  is  called 
New  Russian. 

Podolia,  Kiev,  Pultava,  Kharkhov,  are  what 
is  called   Malorussian,    or   Little  Russian.     The 


152  THE  RUSSIANS. 

dialect  differs  notably  from  that  of  the  Muscovite 
of  the  central  governments,  and  has  its  affinities 
in  a  different  direction,  since  it  very  closely  re- 
sembles the  Russniak  of  Gallicia.  And  in  Gal- 
licia  it  probably  originated.  At  the  same  time 
the  three  dialects,  the  Russniak,  the  Maloruss,  and 
the  Muscovite  (or  Great  Russian)  are  mutually 
intelligible.  Between  these  two  branches  of 
the  Russian  family  a  strong  national  antipathy 
exists. 

In  Volhynia  the  dialect  is  the  White  Russian, 
and  so  it  is  in  those  parts  of  Lithuania  where  the 
Lithuanian  is  out  of  use. 

The  true  and  proper  Russian  of  Great  Russia, 
or  Muscovy,  the  language  of  the  capitals,  and 
the  language  which  the  conquests  of  Russia  have 
extended  over  all  Northern  Asia,  and  even  into 
North-western  America,  circumscribed,  as  it  has 
been  shown  to  be,  by  the  languages  and  dialects 
which  have  just  been  enumerated,  is  still  spoken 
over  a  vast  area — over  all  the  central  provinces  of 
Russiaj  as  well  as  on  the  Baltic  and  the  Euxine, 
at  St.  Petersburg  and  at  Odessa.  It  is  generally, 
too,  the  language  of  the  towns.  But,  for  a  lan- 
guage of  so  vast  an  area,  it  falls  into  a  remark- 
ably small  number  of  dialects.  In  Olonetz  it 
is  mixed  with  the  Fin,  since  the  Fin  is  the 
original  language  of  that  government;  and,  in 
Vladimir,  the  Suzdal  dialect  exhibits  certain  pe- 


THE   RUSSIANS.  153 


Iuliarities  ;  but,  with  these,  and,  perhaps,  a  few 
ither  exceptions,  the  uniformity  is  complete. 
This  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  its  introduction 
eing  recent;  a  fact  which  the  whole  history  of 
ncient  Russia  confirms ;  indeed,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  no  truly  Slavonic  nation  (not  even 
the  Malorussians)  occupied  any  portion  of  their 
present  possessions  anterior  to  the  fourth  century 
of  the  Christian  era.  If  so,  how  was  the  area 
first  filled  ?  By  the  Lithuanians  and  the  Ugrians ; 
by  the  Lithuanians  extending  from  the  west  east- 
wards, and  by  the  Ugrians  extending  from  the 
east  westwards.  By  this  hypothesis  the  two  po- 
pulations met  in  some  of  the  central  provinces, 
though  it  is  difiicult  to  fix  the  absolute  points  of 
contact. 

Nor  were  the  Slavonians  even  the  first  in- 
vaders who  disturbed  this  distribution ;  since 
Turk  populations  different  from  and  earlier  than 
the  Turks  of  the  thirteenth  century  were  settled  in 
Southern  Russia  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  i.e,, 
at  the  very  beginning  of  the  historical  period. 
Neither  do  I  press  the  absolute  exclusion  of 
stocks  other  than  the  Lithuanian  and  the  Ugrian 
so  strongly  as  to  deny  the  likelihood  of  the  abo- 
rigines of  the  Crimea  and  some  of  the  neighbour- 
ing districts  having  been  members  of  the  same 
stock  as  the  Circassians  and  the  other  tribes  of 
Caucasus.     Little,  however,  depends  on  this. 


154  LITHUANIC  AREA. 

Upon  the  early  exclusion  of  the  Slavonians  a 
great  deal  depends  ;  a  great  deal  affecting  not 
only  the  ethnology  of  Russia  itself,  but  that  of 
the  whole  area,  real  or  imaginary,  of  the  Slavonic 
stock;  that  of  the  parts  west  of  the  Elbe,  that  of 
Bohemia  and  Dalmatia,  that  of  Wallachia  and 
Hungary,  that  of  Northern  Greece,  that  of  North- 
eastern Italy,  that  of  even  the  Tyrol,  Bavaria, 
and  Switzerland.  And  the  original  extent  of 
the  Lithuanic  area  is  more  important  still.  Ar- 
menian, Persian,  and  Indian  archaeology  are  in- 
volved in  it.  It  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  this 
happens.  There  are  vast  tracts  of  country  along 
the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  the,  Vistula,  and  the  Danube 
that  good  authorities  deny  to  have  been  originally 
Slavonic.  "  They  were  German,"  it  is  said, 
"or  if  not  German,  Keltic,  or,  perhaps,  they 
belonged  to  some  extinct  stock."  "  If  so,"  it  is 
reasonably  asked,  "  whence  came  the  Slavonians, 
and  where  is  the  cradle  of  so  vast  a  family  ?  " 

A  common  answer  is  '*  Russia.""  But  what  if 
Russia  be  Ugrian,  or  if  not  Ugrian,  Lithuanic  ? 
Surely  the  question  is  important. 

Then  as  to  the  Lithuanians.  They  and  the 
Slavonians  are  branches  of  the  same  Sarmatian 
family;  so,  of  course,  their  languages,  though  dif- 
ferent, are  allied.  But  next  to  the  Slavonic 
what  tongues  are  nearest  the  Lithuanic?  Not 
the  speech  of  the  Fin,  the  German,  or  the  Kelt, 


THE   SKOLOTI.  155 


j^^atin  is  liker  than  any  of  these  ;  but  the  likest  of 
all  is  the  ancient  sacred  language  of  India — the 
Sanskrit  of  the  Yedas,  Puranas,  the  Mahabha- 
rata,  and  the  Ramayana.  And  what  tongue  is 
the  nearest  to  the  Sanskrit  ?  Not  those  of  Tibet 
and  Armenia,  not  even  those  of  Southern  India. 
Its  nearest  parallel  is  the  obscure  and  almost  un- 
lettered languages  of  Grodno,  Wilna,  Vitepsk, 
Courland,  Livonia,  and  East  Prussia.  There  is  a 
difficult  problem  here  ;  a  problem  which  every 
fact  which  brings  the  Lithuanic  and  Sanskrit 
areas  nearer  to  each  other,  advances  towards  its 
solution. 

One  of  the  presumptions  in  favour  of  the  view 
in  question  has  been  noticed,  viz.,  the  uniformity 
of  the  Russian  dialects.  Another  is  derived  from 
the  fact  of  both  the  Lithuanians  and  Ugrians 
having  suffered  from  the  encroachment  of  the 
Russians  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  histori- 
cal era.  The  advance  has  always  been  on  one 
side.  The  Russ  has  pressed  northward,  westward, 
and  eastward ;  the  Ugrians  and  Lithuanians  have 
retreated.  But,  better  than  mere  presumptions 
there  is  evidence — historical  and  internal. 

In  Herodotus's  account  of  Scythia,  the  govern- 
ments of  Kherson,  Ekaterinoslav,  with  parts  of 
Kiev,  Poltava,  and  Kharkhov,  are  occupied  by 
a  nation  called  the  Skoloti.     The  informants  of 


156  THE   SKOLOTI. 

Herodotus,  it  is  true,  called  them  Scythce,  but 
Skolotoi  was  what  they  called  themselves ;  and 
Skolotoi  is  the  name  that  is  most  conveniently 
used  when  we  wish  to  be  specific.  Their  area 
coincides  nearly  with  that  of  New  Russia  ;  nearly 
also  with  the  Steppe  district,  as  opposed  to  the 
fat  black  soils  of  the  Middle  Dneiper,  if  we  con- 
sider it  in  respect  to  its  physical  geography. 
And  this  seems  to  determine  the  ethnology  ;  since 
the  Skoloti  fall  in  two  or  more  divisions,  one 
nomadic,  the  other  agricultural ;  the  latter  lying 
to  the  north  of  the  former,  just  as  is  the  case 
with  the  fertile  lands  as  opposed  to  the  bleak 
Steppes.  The  Royal  Skoloti  occupy  the  Crimea. 
The  names  of  this  family  in  detail  are  Alazones, 
Kallipidae,  Skythae  (Skoloti)  Aroteres,  Skythse 
Georgi,  and  Skythae  Basileioi.  But  besides 
there  is  in  the  separate  and  disconnected  popula- 
tion, viz,,  the  Skythae  Apostantes,  or  the  Se- 
ceding Skythians, 

For  the  Skoloti  a  Slavonic  origin  has  been 
claimed,  and  there  is  undoubtedly  one  decided  fact 
in  favour  of  their  being  so.  But  there  is  certainly 
no  more.  On  the  other  hand,  their  Asiatic  origin 
and  their  distribution  connect  them  with  the 
great  Turk  stock  of  Independent  Tartary  and  a 
vast  portion  of  Central  Asia  besides. 

Furthermore,  their  eponymus  is  Tar^-itaus, 
whose  three  sons   are  Leipoxais,   Arpox^ais,  and 


I 


THE    SKOLOTI.  157 


Koloxais.  The  tradition  concerning  these  as 
given  by  Herodotus  is  a  tradition  current  among 
the  Kherghis  Turks  at  the  present  time.  Lastly, 
the  only  word  of  the  few  glosses  of  the  Skolotic 
language  that  can  be  explained  by  any  known 
tongue  in  a  plain  straightforward  manner,  and 
without  an  undue  amount  of  philological  manipu- 
lation is  the  word  oior^=man,  which  is  Turk 
throughout  all  the  dialects  of  the  Turk  stock. 
The  one  decided  fact  in  favour  of  a  Sarmatian 
origin  is  the  statement  that  certain  Sauromatae 
beyond  the  Don  spoke  the  Skythian  language.  It 
should  be  added,  however,  that  they  spoke  it 
with  solecisms  (o-oXot/covre?).  Now  it  will  readily 
be  admitted  that  a  Sarmatian  population  pro- 
truded as  it  were  from  the  Lower  Danube  to  the 
parts  beyond  the  Donetz  (Tanais),  and  thus  iso- 
lated from  its  fellows,  was  just  in  the  position  to 
speak  the  language  of  the  dominant  occupants, 
and  to  speak  it  badly.  Isolated,  such  Sarmatians 
undoubtedly  were. 

They  were  also  mixed.  The  special  statement 
of  Herodotus  is  that  they  were  descended,  on 
one  side,  from  the  Skythae  of  the  country,  on  the 
other,  from  an  invading  body  of  Amazons.  An 
explanation  of  this  will  be  offered  when  the  eth- 
nology of  Thrace  comes  under  notice. 

A  second  argument  of  far  less  value  lies  in 
the  names  of  two  Skoloti  of  rank — Ariei-pithes, 


158  THE   SKOLOTI. 

and  SipSiYgSi-pithes.  They  are  evidently  com- 
pounds, whilst  the  latter  name  occurs  in  Persian, 
and  the  element  -pith-  (bed)  in  Armenian.  This  is 
a  complication,  since  it  suggests  another  class  of 
affinities.  Valeat  quantum.  The  gloss  oior,  the 
descent  from  Targitaus,  the  legends  of  Koloxais, 
and  the  Asiatic  origin  stand  against  it.  Besides 
which,  a  little  ingenuity  will  explain  away  the 
root  -pith.  It  may  have  been  a  title,  as  it  actually 
is  in  Armenian,  and,  if  so,  a  word  belonging  to 
the  language  of  Herodotus's  informant,  rather 
than  to  the  Skolotic.  Or  the  same  class  of  Turk 
intrusions  which  introduced  it  into  Europe,  may 
have  done  the  same  in  Persia;  and  this  is  not 
unlikely.  It  was  just  as  much  a  proper  name 
amongst  the  Massagetae  as  it  was  amongst  the 
Skoloti. 

Turk  invasion  is  the  rule  in  Russia,  and  that 
of  the  Skoloti  is  the  earliest  on  record.  And  it 
is  in  the  very  earliest  records  that  it  appears. 
The  reasons  for  making  it  Turk  have  been  con- 
sidered ;  and  it  cannot  have  been  Turk  without 
having  been  comparatively  recent.  Consequently, 
there  was  a  displacement  of  an  earlier  population, 
as  is  shown  by  the  existence  of  an  isolated  popu- 
lation of  Sauromatae  beyond  the  Donetz — in  the 
country  of  the  Don  Kosaks. 

But  what  are  the  reasons  for  supposing  the 
Skolotic  area  of  Herodotus  to  have  been  origi- 


UGRIANS    m   SOUTHERIf    RUSSIA.  15.9 


^^Bally  either  Ugrian  or  Lithuanic,  or,  if  not  either 
exclusively,  divided  between  the  tv^o?  In  the 
first  place  there  are  Ugrians  as  far  south  as  the 
governments  of  Astrakhan  and  Simbirsk  at  the 
present  moment ;  and  that  in  situ,  so  to  say,  or  in 
the  position  of  indigenous  occupants  of  their  pre- 
sent localities  rather  than  that  of  a  newly  intro- 
duced population.  In  the  next  place,  there  is 
more  than  one  geographical  term  in  the  Skythian 
geography  of  the  early  writers  which  seems  to 
belong  to  the  Ugrian  class  of  tongues ;  from 
which  we  may  infer  that,  even  if  the  informants 
of  Herodotus  did  not  take  their  geographical 
terms  from  the  Ugrians  themselves,  they  took 
them  from  a  population  with  which  the  Ugrian 
area  was  conterminous. 

1.  The  name  Rhox-oZfl^wi,  occurring  in  Strabo, 
has  long  been  considered  Ugrian.  No  other  class 
of  languages  forms  the  plural  in  -laine :  several 
of  the  Ugrians  do  so. 

2.  The  term  Rhi^pcean^  as  applied  to  the  Rhi- 
paean  Mountains,  is  Ugrian.  Rhip=-mountain  in 
Ostiak. 

3.  The  country  of  the  Neuri  was  bounded  by  a 
lake,  at  the  head  of  the  river  Tyras.  There  are 
certain  geographical  difficulties  here,  which  this 
is  no  time  to  investigate.  A  swamp  or  fen  is 
a  more  likely  explanation.  With  this  meaning, 
the  word  is  Ugrian  ;  and,  at  the  present  moment, 


160       INDIAN    AFFINITIES    OF    THE    LITHUANIC. 

the  town  of  Narym  in  Siberia  means,  in  Ostiak, 
the  Fens^ 

Then  comes  the  Lithuanian  question ;  upon 
which  the  reasoning  is  far  more  elaborate ;  con- 
sisting chiefly  in  the  exposition  of  an  undoubted 
fact,  and  the  suggestion  of  a  new  interpretation 
of  it.  No  two  parts  of  the  world  are  so  distant 
but  what  they  may  illustrate  each  other's  ethno- 
logy ;  and,  in  the  present  case,  the  ancient  geo- 
graphy of  Kherson  and  the  Crimea  is  explained 
by  that  of  Persia,  Cabul,  and  Hindostan. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  ancient, 
sacred,  and  literary  language  of  Northern  India 
has  its  closest  grammatical  affinities  in  Europe. 
With  none  of  the  tongues  of  the  neighbouring 
countries,  with  no  form  of  the  Tibetan  of  the 
Himalayas,  of  the  Burmese  dialects  of  the  north- 
east, with  no  Tamul  dialect  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  Peninsula  itself,  has  it  half  such  close  resem- 
blances as  it  has  with  a  distant  and  disconnected 
language  spoken  on  the  Baltic — the  Lithuanian. 

As  to  the  Lithuanian,  it  has,  of  course,  its 
closest  affinities  with  the  Slavonic  tongues  of 
Russia,  Bohemia,  Poland,  and  Servia,  since  the 
Slavonic  and  Lithuanic  are  two  branches  of  the 
same  Sarmatian  stock.  But  when  we  go  beyond 
the  Sarmatian  stock,  and  bring  into  the  field  of 
comparison  the  other  tongues  of  Europe,  the 
Latin,  the  Greek,  the  German,  and  the  Keltic,  we 


INDIAN   AFFINITIES    OF   THE    LITHUANIC.      161 


find  that,  though  the  Lithuanic  is  more  or  less 
clearly  connected  with  all  of  them,  it  is,  beyond 
comparison,  far  liker  the  old  Indian  or  Sanskrit. 

Such  is  the  undoubted  fact,  for  which  there 
are  many  doubtful  explanations.  Of  these,  the 
most  unscientific  is  the  most  current. 

1 .  The  area  of  Asiatic  languages  in  Asia  allied 
to  the  Sanskrit  is  smaller  than  the  area  of  Euro- 

Ipean  languages  allied  to  the  Lithuanic ;  and — 
2.  The  class  or  genus  to  which  the  two  tongues 
equally  belong,  is  represented  in  Asia  by  the 
Sanskritic  division  only  ;  whereas  in  Europe  it 
falls  into  three  divisions,  each  of,  at  least,  equal 
value  with  the  single  Asiatic  one— the  Gothic,  the 
Sarmatian,  the  Classical  (Latin  and  Greek) — to 
which,  if  we  extend  the  value  of  the  term  "  Indo- 
European,"  the  Keltic  may  be  added. 

The  botanist  who,  finding  in  Asia,  extended 
over  a  comparatively  small  area,  a  single  species, 
belonging  to  a  genus  which  covered  two-thirds 
of  Europe,  should  pronounce  the  genus  to  be 
Asiatic,  would  be  in  the  same  position  as  an  eth- 
nologist who  should  derive  the  Indo-European 
stock  of  languages  from  India.  Except  so  far  as 
he  might  urge  that  everything  came  from  the 
East,  and  so  convert  the  specific  question  into  an 
hypothesis  as  to  the  origin  of  vegetation  in  gene- 
ral, he  would  forfeit  his  character  as  a  botanical 
logician.  Neither  would  the  zoologist  who,  mutatis 


162     INDIAN   AFFINITIES   OF   THE   LITHUANIC. 

mutandis,  deduced  the  larger  from  the  smaller,  the 
complex  from  the  simple,  fare  much  better.  Now 
it  is  a  sad  truth,  that  what  no  naturalist  could 
attempt,  philologists  and  ethnologists  do  with 
complacency ;  for  so  general  is  the  acquiescence 
in  the  Eastern  origin  of  the  Indo-European 
tongues,  that  the  possibility  of  every  phenomenon 
connected  with  the  Sanskrit  and  its  allied  dialects 
in  Asia  being  explicable  by  means  of  a  simple 
Sarmatian  conquest  from  Southern  Russia  seems 
never  to  have  been  entertained. 

The  only  part,  however,  of  this  complicated 
question  which  requires  further  consideration  in 
a  work  like  the  present,  is  the  necessity  of  bring- 
ing the  Lithuanic  and  Indian  areas  as  near  each 
other  as  possible;  a  necessity  which,  by  itself, 
justifies  the  assumption  of  a  southward  extension 
of  the  former.  Hence,  in  addition  to  their  pre- 
sent districts,  the  governments  of  Volhynia,  Po- 
dolia,  Kiev,  Kherson,  and  the  Taurida,  are  as- 
signed to  it.  From  these,  either  as  indigence,  or 
as  the  invaders  of  a  country  originally  Ugrian, 
they  conquered  certain  portions  of  Asia,  just  as 
the  Majiars  conquered  Hungary,  and  just  as  the 
Greeks,  some  centuries  later,  conquered  Hin- 
dostan.  Their  language  was  what  afterwards 
became  known  as  the  Sanskrit,  the  Zend,  the 
Persepolitan,  and  the  Pali.  Their  occupancy 
ended  when  that  of  the   Skoloti  began ;  and  it 


RUSSIAN   POLAND.  163 

began  some  time  anterior  to  the  date  of  the 
earliest  Sanskrit  record.  Such  is  the  hypothesis ; 
one  which  will,  probably,  find  more  favour  with 
the  naturalist  than  with  the  scholar.  A  subordi- 
nate reason  for  bringing  the  Lithuanians  beyond 
their  present  area,  will  be  given  when  the  ethno- 
logy of  Gallicia  comes  under  notice. 

Russian  Poland. — When  domestic  faction  and 
foreign  intrigue  succeeded  in  effecting  the  parti- 
tion of  the  ancient  and  powerful  kingdom  of 
Poland,  it  disturbed  a  hitherto  natural  division, 
by  dividing  the  Lekh  division  of  the  Slavonic 
branch  of  the  Sarmatian  stock  between  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia. 

Lekh  is  the  name  best  suited  for  ethnological 
purposes,  because  it  connects  the  modern  king- 
dom of  Poland  with  the  country  of  the  ancient 
and  powerful  Lygii,  a  name  "  widely  spread  over 
numerous  states.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  name 
the  most  powerful,  the  Arii,  the  Manimi,  the 
Helvecones,  the  Elysii,  the  Naharvali."  * 

The  religion  of  the  first,  and  the  warlike  cus- 
toms of  the  last  of  these  nations,  are  noticed 
somewhat  in  detail ;  for  the  Naharvali  celebrated 
certain  rites  within  a  holy  grove,  and  with  a  priest 
in  a  woman's  dress.  One  of  their  deities  was 
named  Aids;  two  others  were  the  analogues  of 
Castor  and  Pollux. 

*  Taciti  Germania,  xciv. 


164  RUSSIAN   POLAND. 

The  fierce  and  powerful  Arii  stained  their 
bodies,  and  witli  black  shields  chose  the  darkest 
nights  for  their  terrible  attacks. 

That  Tshekh  and  Lekh  were  the  respective 
leaders  of  the  Bohemians  and  Poles,  is,  with  each 
nation,  a  native  tradition.  It  is  also  under  the 
name  of  Lekh  that  the  latter  are  noticed  by  the 
oldest  Slavonic  historian — the  monk  Nestor. 

The  Naharvali  were  probably  Lithuanians  of 
East  Prussia,  rather  than  true  Poles. 

The  Arii,  according  to  the  Lithuanic  hypo- 
thesis of  the  Sanskrit  language,  may  have  been 
something  much  more  important,  vi^.,  the  Median 
Arii  of  the  Asiatic  invasion ;  in  which  case  they 
were  themselves  either  Lithuanian  rather  than 
Polish,  or  else  (as  is  likely)  the  migration  was 
Slavono-Lithuanic,  instead  of  exclusively  Lithu- 
anic. 

Upon  the  Lekh  origin  of  the  Helvecones,  Ma- 
nimi,  and  Elysii,  there  are  no  refinements. 

Of  the  Polish  area  the  eastern  and  north- 
eastern parts  seem  to  be  the  most  recent,  since, 
within  the  historical  period,  it  has  encroached 
upon  that  of  the  Lithuanians  of  Grodno  and  the 
Baltic  provinces,  and  upon  that  of  the  Russniaks 
of  Gallicia.  In  character,  the  language  ap- 
proaches the  Tshekh  of  Bohemia,  and  the  Sora- 
bian  of  Lusatia  and  Saxony  in  the  south  and 
west.      It    was    extended    in    the    direction   of 


THE   POLES.  165 

the  Elbe,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  chapter  on 
Prussia. 

Unless  it  can  be  shown  that  the  text  of  Ta- 
citus is  conclusive  as  to  the  Lygii  having  been 
Germans  rather  than  what  the  name,  place,  and 
the  belief  of  the  Poles  themselves  suggest,  the 
Poles  of  south-western  Poland  (at  least)  form  the 
purest  population  which  has  been  met  with  since 
we  left  the  Basques ;  so  that  as  far  as  it  has  been 
mixed  at  all,  it  has  been  through  elements  super- 
added to  the  original  Lekh  stock  rather  than 
through  those  of  anything  anterior  to  it.  The 
Mongol  invasions  touched  it;  but  that  is  all. 
The  Roman  and  German  conquests  never  reached 
it.  Upon  Russia,  until  the  last  century,  it  en- 
croached. Hence,  the  elements  of  admixture 
that  remain  are  Jewish,  German,  and  others  even 
less  important  still. 

The  language  is  a  separate  substantive  tongue  ; 
the  most  cultivated  of  all  the  Slavonic  forms  of 
speech.  From  the  Lithuanian  it  is  broadly  sepa- 
rated ;  less  so  from  the  Muscovite  and  Malo- 
russian ;  but  less  still  from  the  Bohemian  and 
Sorabian. 

A  short  analytical  sketch  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  Russian  populations  will  now  be 
given. 

The  western  half  of  the  government  of  Arkh- 
angel  is  Lapp,  the  eastern,  Samoeid. 


166  SAMOEIDS. 

The  Russian  Lapps  are  all  more  or  less  Chris- 
tianized. Reindeer  and  fish  are  their  chief  ali- 
ments, their  habits  being  migratory. 

Except  in  language,  the  Samoeid  of  the  Arctic 
Circle  difiers  but  little  from  the  Lapp,  and  even 
this  difference  has  lately  been  shown  to  be  less 
than  was  previously  supposed.  In  manners  they 
are  somewhat  ruder ;  whilst  their  Christianity  is 
far  more  incomplete.  Indeed,  the  old  Shama- 
nistic  Paganism  is  their  dominant  religion.  This 
they  share  with  the  Ostiaks,  their  neighbours  on 
the  south.  But  the  most  important  fact  con- 
nected with  the  Samoeids  is  their  distribution 
and  aflinities.  Along  with  populations  more  or 
less  closely  allied  to  them,  they  originally  covered 
the  whole  of  the  vast  region  of  Siberia ;  a  region 
even  at  present  occupied  by  them  partially,  and 
in  detached  localities,  though  the  greater  part  of 
it  is  in  possession  of  Mongol,  Turk,  and  Tungu- 
sian  populations  —  populations  whose  primary 
homes  were  in  Central,  rather  than  Northern 
Asia,  but  who  have  in  all  cases  pressed  north- 
wards, and,  in  some,  reached  as  far  as  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Sea.  But  as  their  occupation  is 
incomplete,  isolated  fragments  of  the  original 
populations  still  remain.  Some  of  these  are 
absolutely  Samoeid,  i.e.,  belonging  to  the  same 
division  of  the  same  branch  of  the  Ugrian  stock. 
Others  belong  to  diiferent  divisions.     All,  how- 


SAMOEIPS.  167 

ever,  agree  in  speaking  a  language  more  akin 
to  each  other  than  to  the  Turks,  Mongols,  and 
Tungusians,  by  whom  they  are  surrounded  or 
separated. 

The  particular  affinities  of  the  Samoeids  are 
with  the  Koibal,  Kamash,  and  other  tribes  of 
Southern  Siberia  on  the  upper  part  of  the  Ye- 
nesey  and  on  the  very  frontier  of  the  Chinese 
empire. 

Between  these  and  the  Samoeids  of  Arkhangel 
the  population  belongs  to  the  class  called  Ye- 
neseian.  Now  the  language  of  the  Yeneseians, 
though  less  like  that  of  either  of  the  Samoeid 
branches,  than  they  are  to  each  other,  is  still 
Ugrian  rather  than  Turk,  Mongol,  or  Tungusian. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  a  population  as  far 
east  as  the  Kolyma,  the  Jukahiri.  It  is  more 
Ugrian  than  Turk;  yet  the  Yakut  Turk  of  the 
Lena,  rather  than  any  Ugrian  tongue,  is  the  lan- 
guage with  which  it  is  in  geographical  contact. 
Lastly,  it  should  be  added  that,  according  to  a 
table  of  Ermann's,  the  language  of  the  Ugrian 
Ostiaks  of  the  Obi,  is  more  like  that  of  the  Kams- 
kadales  of  Kamskatka  than  it  is  to  the  Turk 
tongues  by  which  it  is  most  immediately  bounded. 
The  inferences  from  all  this  are  enormous  exten- 
sion and  subsequent  displacement  of  the  Ugrian 
family. 

The  Lapps  and  Samoeids  alone,  of  all  the  Euro- 


168  FINLAND. 

pean  populations,  have  been  considered  savages. 
They,  too,  only  have  been  classed  amongst  the 
so-called  inferior  races.  And  it  is  undoubtedly 
true,  that  if  we  look  to  Europe  alone,  the  line  of 
demarcation  v^hich  separates  them  from  the  Fin- 
lander  (Ugrian  as  he  is),  and  a  fortiori  from  the 
Scandinavian  and  Slavonian  is  clear  and  trenchant. 
But  Europe  alone  must  not  be  looked  to ;  neither 
must  the  Lapp  and  Samoeid  be  considered  to  cover 
the  whole  of  their  original  area.  Encroachment 
has  taken  place  from  the  south,  whereby  the  tran- 
sitional varieties  have  become  either  extinct  or 
amalgamate. 

This  is  what  we  infer  from  the  broken-up  cha- 
racter of  the  Ugrian  area  in  Siberia,  as  well  as 
from  the  fact  of  the  southern  Samoeids,  the 
Yeneseians,  the  Ostiaks,  and  several  other  popula- 
tions being  transitional  in  form  and  manner  to 
the  Ugrian  of  the  Arctic  and  the  Ugrian  of  the 
Southern,  or  Danuhian,  types. 

The  true  Kwain  of  Finland,  as  contrasted  with 
the  Lapp,  is  light-haired,  grey-eyed,  and  well- 
grown.  The  admixture  of  Swedish  blood  is  con- 
siderable. A  poem,  approaching  the  character  of 
the  epic,  and,  at  any  rate,  national  and  heroic, 
favourably  represents  the  early  capacity  of  the 
Kwain  for  appreciating  song  and  music ;  and,  in 
confirmation  of  the  doctrine  of  a  considerable  dis- 
placement of  the  more  southern  members  of  the 


ESTHONIA — LIVONIA. 


169 


Lapp  and  Samoeid  families,  its  subject  is  the  con- 
quest of  Finland  by  the  ancestors  of  its  present 
occupants.  The  later  civilizational  influences 
are  Swedish.  So,  too,  is  their  Protestant  and 
Lutheran  Christianity.  A  sturdy  tenacity  of 
temper,  combined  with  considerable  bravery  and 
power  of  endurance,  has  fairly  been  attributed  to 
the  Kwains.  In  Karelia  the  Swedish  elements 
diminish.     In  Olonetz  the  Russian  increase. 

Of  the  government  of  St.  Petersburg  the  ori- 
:ginal  inhabitants  were  the  Kwains  of  Ingria.  In 
Esthonia  the  type  changes.  The  population  calls 
itself  Rahwas,  speaks  a  language  akin  to,  but 
•different  from,  tlie  Kwain,  a  language,  too,  which 
rem  falling  in,  at  least,  two  well-marked  varie- 
ties, the  Esthonian  proper  and  the  Esthonian  of 
Dorpat,  presents  internal  evidence  of  being  no 
itiewly  introduced  form  of  speech,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  an  old  and  original  tongue. 

In  Livonia,  or  Lief-land,  the  oldest  population 
as  Lief;  and  the.  Liefs  were  Ugrians.     A  few 
nly  now  remain.     The  first  displacement  was  at 
he  hands  of  the  Lithuanian  Letts,  who  are,  at 
resent,  the  chief  population  ;  themselves  becom- 
ing, day  by  day,  more  and  more  Germanized — 
and,  when  not  German,  Slavonic. 

Here,  as  in  Finland,  though  in  a  less  degree, 

there  is  a  Swedish  intermixture  ;   indeed  in  one 

f  the  small  islands  of  the  Oesel  Archipelago,  the 


170  COURLAND. 

Isle  of  Worms,  the  population  is  Swede.  In 
the  Isle  of  Aaland  it  is  Swedish,  with  a  Ugrian 
basis. 

Courland  is  Lithuanian,  having  once,  in  its 
eastern  parts  at  least,  been  Ugrian ;  as  was  the 
whole  of  Liefland  (Livonia).  The  river  Salis 
runs  across  Liefland,  and  divides  the  northern  half 
from  the  southern.  This  (there  or  thereabouts) 
constitutes  the  frontier.  At  Dorpat — which  is  a 
town  of  Liefland — the  proper  Esthonian  changes 
its  character,  and  so  do  several  of  the  legends  and 
traditions.  Now,  as  the  Dorpatians  and  the  Liefs 
agree  in  those  points  wherein  the  Esthonians 
of  the  coast  and  Dorpatians  difier,  the  following 
hypothesis  has  been  suggested,  viz, : — that  when 
the  Letts  of  Courland  first  pressed  upon  the 
Liefs  of  Livonia,  these  latter  moved  northwards 
towards  Dorpat,  then  occupied  by  the  typical 
Esthonians.  These  being  displaced  by  the  im- 
migrant Liefs  pressed  the  other  Esthonians  into 
South  Finland. 

Such  displacements,  however,  of  a  popula- 
tion already  settled  and  at  peace,  by  some  other 
weaker  than  itself,  in  consequence  of  aggressions 
from  a  third  body  of  invaders,  are  commoner  upon 
paper  than  in  reality.  The  real  fact  seems  to  be 
that  the  country  about  Dorpat  is  intermediate  in 
character  to  the  Lief  and  Esthonian  areas.  From 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Salis  to  Pabask,  the  present 


COURLAND   AND    LIEFLAO.  l7l 

iiefs  are  the  occupants  of  the  sea-coast ;  proba- 
)le  descendants  of  the  ancient  Lemovii,  the  m 
►eing  changed  into  v.  That  the  -ov-  is  no  part  of 
le  original  word  is  shown  by  the  forms  Lami, 
id  Xam-otina,  Lcem-omif  and  Lam-methm,  Nes- 
)r's  form  more  closely  approaches  the  present, 
id  is  Lib\ 

Judging  from  geographical  names,  as  we  find 
lem  on  the  common  maps,  Courland,  as  com- 
pared with  Liefland,  seems  the  more  Germanized 
country  of  the  two. 

Courland  and  Liefland  are  the  areas  of  the 
Lett,  or  Lettonian  division  of  the  Lithuanic 
stock ;  Yilna  and  Grodno  are  Proper  Lithuanian — 
Lithuanian  Proper  and  Samogitian.  The  later 
intrusions  are  from  Poland.  The  Russian  ele- 
ments, too,  of  Vilna  and  Grodno  have  been  Po- 
lonized ;  unless  we  prefer  to  say  that  the  Pole 
elements  have  been  Russianized.  This  means 
that  when  the  language  of  Lithuania  is  neither 
the  true  Polish  nor  the  true  Lithuanic,  it  is  what 
is  called  White  Russian,  a  Poloniform  dialect  of 
the  Russ.  The  geographical  names  in  Vilna  are 
easily  distinguished  from  the  Muscovite,  The 
derivatives  in  -skaja,  so  common  in  St.  Peters- 
burg and  Novogorod,  are  replaced  by  forms  in 
-ichki. 

The  Lithuanian  nations  of  the  Jaczwingi  and 
PoUexiani    extended,   at   the   beginning  of  the 


1 72  VOLH  YNIA— PODOLIA. 

historical  period,  as  far  south  as  the  Marsh  of 
Pinsk,  at  the  head- waters  of  the  Pripecz,  so  that 
the  northern  part  of  Minsk  was  Lithuania  in  the 
tenth  century.  All  prolongations  beyond  this 
are  ethnological  rather  than  historical,  i.e.,  they 
rest  on  inference  rather  than  testimony. 

The  eastern  part  of  Minsk,  on  the  strength 
of  the  word  Narym*  is  considered  to  have  been 
Ugrian.  The  whole  government  is  at  present 
Russian,  with  (as  is  supposed)  a  Lithuanic  and 
Ugrian  basis  ;  the  Neuri,  whether  Ugrians,  Li- 
thuanians, or  Ugro-Lithuanians  having  formed 
a  portion  of  its  oldest  population. 

Volhynia  is  considered  to  have  been  originally 
Lithuanic,  for  two  reasons  —  the  necessity  of 
bringing  down  the  early  Lithuanic  area  as  far  in 
one  direction  as  Gallicia,  and  as  far  in  another  as 
the  Lower  Don. 

Podolia  is  Maloruss,  or  Russniak,  its  present 
population  having  been  an  extension  of  the  Gal- 
lician  Russniaks.  It  is  considered  to  have  been 
originally  Lithuanic,  from  the  necessity  of  bring- 
ing that  area  towards  the  Lower  Don. 

Kherson  and  Ekaterinoslav  are  eminently  he- 
terogeneous. Ugrian,  perhaps,  at  first :  they  then 
became  Lithuanic,  then  Skolotic,  Hun,  Avar, 
Alan,  Khazar,  Mongol,  and  Russian,  not  to 
mention  recent  colonies  of  Germans  and  Arme- 
*  Seep.  160. 


TAURIDA.  173 

nians.  The  extent  to  which  the  heterogeneous 
population  of  these  parts  differs  from  that  of  the 
more  Slavonic  governments  of  Russia,  and  ap- 
proaches that  of  the  true  Turk  areas  is  shown 
by  the  name  Little  Tartary^  and  New  Russia,  by 
which  they  are  often  designated. 

Taurida  is  a  study  of  itself.  It  may  have  been 
Ugrian  at  first.  The  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween the  ancient  Tauri  and  Thracians  of  Thrace 
I  refer  to  a  common  Sarmatian  origin.  But  what 
does  this  mean?  Sarmatian  blood  from  the 
Lower  Danube,  or  Sarmatian  blood  from  Lithua- 
nia ?  or  both  ?  Then  there  were  displacements 
effected  by  the  tribes  of  Caucasus — Abasgi,  in 
the  classical  times,  Circassians  under  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  Then  Greek  colonies.  Then  Sko- 
lotic  conquests.  Then  the  other  varieties  of 
Turk  occupancy.  Besides  this,  comes  that  of  the 
Goths  of  Lower  Danube,  and  lastly,  the  Greeks 
of  Byzantium,  the  Genoese  of  Kaffa,  and  the 
Mongols. 

In  Bessarabia,  Turks  and  Moldavians  are  the 
predominant  population.  Divided  between  Getae 
and  Skoloti,  at  the  beginning  of  the  historical 
period,  it  has  since  had  its  full  share  of  foreign 
invasion.  The  particular  Turk  population,  how- 
ever, is  that  of  the  Budziaks ;  such  being  the 
name  of  the  so-called  Tartars  of  Bessarabia. 
The  date  of  their  introduction  is  probably  that  of 


1T4  THE   DON   KOSAKS. 

the  Crimean  Turks.  Another  variety  consists  in 
a  more  recent  colony  of  Nogays,  from  the  govern- 
ment of  Astrakhan. 

The  Russians  Proper,  like  those  of  New  Rus- 
sia, are  the  latest  elements  of  all.  Hence,  the 
view  of  the  Bessarabian  population  is  that  it  is 
Turk  on  the  eastern,  and  Moldavian  on  the 
western  frontier,  with  Slavonic  and  German  su- 
peradditions. 

Kosak  is  a  word  which  is  now  generally  ad- 
mitted to  be  of  Turk  origin.  In  its  present  signi- 
fication it  has  a  military  or  political  rather  than 
an  ethnological  sense.  It  means  a  horse-soldier 
owing  military  service  to  the  Russian  Empire. 

His  locality,  his  semi-feudal  duties,  and  his 
blood,  all  vary.  The  Kosaks  of  the  Don  are 
chiefly  Malorussian,  with  considerable  Turk, 
some  Circassian,  and  also  some  Mongol,  intermix- 
ture. 

But  besides  the  true  Kosak  of  the  Don  there  is 
a  Kalmuk  colony  in  the  country  as  well ;  an  offset 
from  the  greater  settlement  on  the  Volga.  These 
are  true  Mongols  in  manners,  in  physiognomy, 
and,  to  a  great  extent,  in  creed.  They  are  also 
the  most  south-western  members  of  the  family  to 
which  they  belong.  Their  introduction  is  recent ; 
for  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  so-called 
Mongol  conquest  of  Russia,  although  effected  by 
the  successors  of  Zingis-Khan,  was  Turk  rather 


THE   MORDUm.  175 

than  true  Mongolian,  the  previously  conquered 
Turks  of  Tartary  and  Siberia  being  the  chief 
agents. 

Voronej  is  the  country  of  the  ancient  Budini 
and  Geloni,  the  country  of  the  forest  rather  than 
the  steppe,  both  in  the  days  of  Herodotus  and  at 
the  present  time.  The  Geloni,  I  think,  like  the 
proper  Skoloti,  were  Turks,  intrusive  upon  a 
previously  Ugrian  population  —  a  Ugrian  popu- 
lation continued  southwards  from  the  govern- 
ments of  Penza,  Simbirsk,  and  Saratov. 

North  and  east  of  Tambov  the  original  Ugrian 
population  is  no  longer  a  matter  of  inference. 
In  Penza  the  geographical  names  betray  the  re- 
cent occupancy  of  Ugrians  of  the  Morduin  branch. 
In  Nizhni  Novogorod,  Simbirsk,  and  Kasan,  the 
Morduins  still  exist ;  falling  into  three  divisions, 
and  speaking  a  peculiar  language.  On  the  Oka 
they  call  themselves  Ersad,  on  the  Sura  Mokshad. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Kasan  they  are  called 
by  the  Turks  Karatai.  Imperfectly  Christianized 
they  still  retain  much  of  their  original  Sham- 
anism ;  are  well-grovm,  in  respect  to  size  and 
stature,  thin-bearded,  and  with  brovm  rather 
than  either  black  or  flaxen  hair.  In  a.d.  1837, 
their  numbers  were  about  92,000. 

The  next  Ugrian  family  in  the  same  govern- 
ments is  that  of  the  Tsheremiss,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Volga.     Smaller  in  stature  than  the  Mor- 


176  THE  TSHEREMISS. 

duins,  they  have  but  little  beard,  smooth  skins, 
light  hair,  and  flat  faces.  Imperfectly  Chris- 
tianized, and  imperfectly  agricultural :  they  still 
retain  much  of  their  original  Paganism  as  well 
as  of  their  nomadic  habits.  Their  language  be- 
longs to  the  second  class  of  Ugrian  tongues 
spoken  in  these  south-western  portions  of  the 
Ugrian  area.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga, 
and  opposite  the  Tsheremiss  are  the  Tshuvatsh 
also  in  the  governments  of  Simbirsk,  Kasan, 
and  Saratov.  Of  the  three  families  they  are  the 
most  numerous,  exceeding  300,000.  Their  hair 
is  often  black,  and  somewhat  curly  ;  and  if  the 
Morduin  recede  from  the  proper  Ugrian  type  and 
approach  the  Slavonians,  the  Tshuvatsh  do  the 
same  in  respect  to  the  Turks.  Their  language, 
too,  contains  an  inordinate  proportion  of  Turk 
words :  indeed,  by  several  good  authorities,  it  has 
been  considered  an  intermediate  or  transitional 
form  of  speech. 

The  Ugrians  are  the  oldest  occupants  of  the 
government  of  Kasan,  the  Turks  the  most  nume- 
rous. 

Of  the  same  date  with  those  of  the  Crimea, 
they  represent  the  Mongol  conquerors  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  Mixed  in  blood,  Mahome- 
tan in  creed,  the  Tartars  of  Kasan  are  "  of 
middle  stature  and  muscular,  but  not  fat.  Their 
heads  are  of  an  oval  shape ;  their  countenances 


THE  VOTIAKS.  l77 

of  fresh  complexion,  and  fine  regular  features  ; 
their  eyes,  mostly  black,  are  small  and  lively ; 
their  noses  arched  and  thin  as  well  as  their  lips. 
Their  hair  is  generally  dark,  and  their  teeth 
strong;  their  gesture  full  of  dignity  and  grace. 
The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  females,  but  the 
expression  of  their  countenances  is  lost  through 
their  manner  of  life,  and  the  natural  attractive- 
ness of  their  persons  is  lessened  by  ornament  and 
paint."  * 

Their  civilization  is  on  a  level  with  that  of  the 
Osmanli. 

The  Turk  area  extends  eastwards,  the  Ugrian  is 
continued  north  and  north-west.  The  Udmart, 
or  Udy  of  the  river  Viatka,  are  the  Votiaks  of  the 
Russians  and  the  Ari  of  the  Turks,  imperfect 
Christians,  agriculturalists  rather  than  nomades, 
and  with  more  red-haired  individuals  amongst 
them  than  any  other  population.  Eminently 
unmixed,  they  live  not  only  in  separate  houses 
but  in  separate  villages. 

The  Uralian  range  itself  is  the  occupancy  of 
the  Vogulj  and  here  the  type  changes.  The  flat- 
ness of  feature  increases  ;  the  stature  diminishes  ; 
the  habits  are  ruder.  Hunting  is  the  chief  means 
of  subsistence.  Both  in  this  respect  and  in  lan- 
guage, the  affinities  of  the  Voguls  are,  with  the 

*  Ermann — Prichard,  vol.  iv.  p.  346. 

N 


178  THE  PERMIAIfS. 

Asiatic  rather  than  the  European  Ugrians — the 
Ostiaks  rather  than  the  Permians. 

The  Votiaks,  on  the  other  hand,  lead  through 
the  Permians  and  Siranians  to  the  Finlanders. 
The  former  of  these  give  their  name  to  the  go- 
vernment of  Perm,  the  Biarmaland  of  the  old 
Norse  Sagas.  They  are  now  nearly  Russianized  ; 
but  tumuli,  Arabic  coins,  an  ancient  alphabet, 
and  an  early  Christianity,  attest  their  capacity 
for  civilization.  The  Siranians  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Vologda  are  closely  allied  to  the  Per- 
mians, and  not  very  far  removed  from  the  Kv^^ains. 

Tvi^o  other  populations  require  notice.  The 
Bashkirs  of  Orenburg  deeply  indent  the  southern 
part  of  Perm.  Imperfect  Mahometans,  they 
speak  Turkish,  but  depart  widely  in  their  phy- 
siognomy from  the  Turks  of  Kasan ;  so  much  so 
that  Klaproth  and  others  consider  them  to  be 
Ugrians  who  have  changed  their  language.  They 
are,  more  probably,  Ugrian  on  the  mother's  side 
only,  the  Turks  having  intruded.  During  sum- 
mer they  wander  either  to  hunt  or  to  tend  their 
herds  and  flocks  ;  in  winter  they  unwillingly  fix 
themselves  to  some  locality  under  the  covert  of  a 
forest,  and  reside  in  houses.  The  Metsheriak, 
the  Teptiar,  and  some  other  tribes,  are  Turks 
belonging  to  the  same  group.  They  belong, 
however,  to  Orenburg  and  Siberia  rather  than 
to  European  Russia. 


THE   OSTIAK.  179 

The  Ostiaks  occupy  part  of  the  government  of 
Perm,  the  part  that  lies  beyond  the  Uralian  range, 
and  which  is,  consequently,  Asiatic.  They  are 
hunters  and  fishers,  less  in  size  and  more  imper- 
fectly Christianized  than  the  Voguls.  I  believe 
them  to  have  been  the  gold-keeping  griffins 
{Gryphes)  of  Herodotus;  though,  to  do  this,  the 
story  of  their  relations  to  the  Arimaspi  must  be 
supposed  to  have  arisen  in  Armenia — no  unlikely 
quarter,  considering  the  probable  line  of  the  gold 
trade.  A  curious  passage  in  Moses  of  Chorene 
tells  us  that  the  root  Astyag,  in  the  Old  Arme- 
nian, signifies  a  dragon :  and  that  Astyages,  the 
Mede,  was,  in  the  eyes  of  an  Armenian,  Astyages 
Draco,  Now,  the  locality  of  the  Ostiaks  is  nearly 
that  of  the  Uralian  gold-mines,  while  just  below 
them  were  the  Tsheremiss,  whose  name  in  the 
mouths,  first  of  a  Skolotian  and  then  of  a  Greek, 
might  easily  become  Arimasp,  The  Ghreek  could 
not  pronounce  the  tsh ;  and  as  numerous  Turkish 
words  end  in  -asp,  the  -p  might  have  been  added 
on  the  principle  which  in  English  converts  aspa- 
ragus into  sparrowgrass. 

We  have  thus  been  brought  round  to  the  Fin- 
landers  of  Finland. 

With  the  reasons  already  given  for  considering 
the  Russian  in  general  to  be  a  population  of  com- 
paratively recent  introduction,  with  the  evidence 
in  favour   of  the  Skoloti  having  been  intrusive 


180  THE   RUSS. 

Turks ;  and  with  the  necessity  of  bringing  the 
Lithuanians  as  far  south  as  the  Asiatic  frontier, 
it  is,  surely,  not  too  much  to  assert  the  doctrine 
that  the  original  Russia  was  divided  between  two 
populations — one  akin  to  the  Permian,  one  to  the 
Lithuanian.  The  line  which  divided  them  is,  per- 
haps, an  insoluble  problem.  Pskov  and  Smo- 
lensko,  at  least,  may  be  given  to  the  latter; 
Vladimir,  Kostroma,  Yaroslav,  Moskow,  and 
Tambov,  to  the  former — Tula,  Orlov,  Koursk, 
Riazan,  Tshernigov,  Kharkhov,  and  Poltava, 
being  left  undistributed. 

Further  ^details  respecting  the  Turk  intrusions 
into  Eastern  Europe  still  stand  over. 

So  do  certain  further  questions  respecting  the 
Asiatic  conquests  of  the  Sarmatians. 

They  will  be  considered  in  the  ethnology  of 
Turkey. 

The  origin  of  the  name  Russ,  however,  re- 
quires a  present  notice.  The  word  itself  is 
Ugrian,  but  it  became  attached  to  the  empire  of 
Russia  through  the  conquests  of  the  Swedes. 
Certain  Swedes,  in  the  ninth  century,  having  in- 
vaded the  country  of  the  (then)  Ugrian  Rhoxo- 
lani,  extended  their  conquests  so  far  southwards 
as  to  reach  the  Black  Sea  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  Caspian  on  the  other.  They  were  objects  of 
terror  to  the  Byzantians ;  and  in  a  curious  pas- 
sage  of   Constantine   Porphyrogeneta   we   learn 


THE   RUSS. 


ll 


that  the  Falls  of  the  Dnieper  had  two  names,  one 
Russ,  and  one  Slavonic — Russ  meaning  Swedish 
or  Norse.  So  that  an  undetermined  amount  of 
Swedish  blood  must  be  given  to  the  Muscovite 
and  Malorussian  areas,  as  well  as  to  the  Baltic 
Provinces ;  and  a  time  must  be  recognized  when 
the  word  Russ  meant  the  Norse  conqueror  of  the 
parts  on  the  Dnieper  and  Volga,  in  opposition  to 
the  conquered  Slavonian.  At  the  same  time  the 
Norse  Russ  was  Russian  only  as  an  Anglo-Saxon 
of  Kent  was  a  Briton.  He  was  a  settler  in  the 
land  of  the  older  Slavonians  and  the  still  older 
Ugrian  Rhoxolani. 


182 


CHAPTER  VII. 

WALLACHIA    AND    MOLDAVIA. RUMANYOS. PHYSICAL    APPEAR- 
ANCE.  DESCENT    FROM    THE    DACI. — SARMATIAN    ORIGIN. 

SERVIA. — MONTENEGRO. 

Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  —  The  Wallachians 
and  Moldavians  are  in  the  same  relations  to  the 
Romans  and  ancient  Daci  as  the  French  are  to 
the  Romans  and  Kelts,  or  the  Spaniards  to  the 
Romans  and  Iherians.  Like  the  degenerate 
Greeks  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  they  call  them- 
selves Roman;  and  their  language,  like  the  Ru- 
monsch  of  the  Grisons  and  the  Romaic  of  modem 
Hellas,  is  Romane. 

As  the  two  principalities  represent  only  a 
portion  of  the  ancient  Dacia,  the  ethnological 
and  political  divisions  differ ;  for,  though  all 
Wallachians  and  all  Moldavians  are  Rumanyos  the 
vrhole  of  the  Rumanyos  are  not  Wallachian  and 
Moldavian.  They  are  also  indigenous  to  Transyl- 
vania and  Bukhovinia.  In  Bulgaria,  Thrace, 
and  Macedonia,  there  are,  probably,  intruders. 
Light  made,  with  dark  skins,  black  eyes,  and 
prominent  features,  they  stand  in  strong  contrast 


I 


WALLACHIA   AND    MOLDAVIA.  183 


to  both  the  Russians  and  the  Slovaks,  with  which 
they  are  in  geographical  contact.  Nor  is  it  safe 
to  refer  this  to  Roman  blood,  since,  according  to 
Mr.  Paget,  the  Dacians  of  Trajan's  column  have 
similar  features  —  at  least  as  far  as  the  profile 
goes,  and  as  far  as  the  description  of  a  Transyl- 
vanian  Riimanyo  applies  to  those  of  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia. 

Of  all  the  districts  on  the  Danube,  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia  have  been  the  least  disturbed 
during  the  last  sixteen  centuries.  This,  though 
it  is  saying  but  little  for  a  country  in  the  most 
afflicted  part  of  Europe,  is  the  inference  from 
the  continued  existence  of  their  language.  Dis- 
placed in  all  the  other  Danubian  provinces  it  is 
still  the  native  tongue  to  upwards  of  200,000 
protected  and  half  independent  Rumanyi. 

In  detail,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Wallachia 
were  the  Potulatensii,  the  Sensii,  the  Salrensii, 
the  Kiageisi,  and  the  Piephagi  of  Strabo. 

In  Moldavia,  there  had  been  a  displacement  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Herodotus. 

The  Skoloti  of  Russia  reached  the  Carpa- 
thians, inasmuch  as  they  were  conterminous 
with  the  Agathyrsi,  and  the  Agathyrsi  were  on 
the  Maros,  i.e.,  in  Transylvania. 

Whether  the  Skoloti  extended  thus  far  west- 
ward, when  Trajan  conquered  Decebalus  is  un- 
certain.   I  think  that  during  the  interval  between 


184  WALLACHIA   AND   MOLDAVIA.   < 

the  time  of  Herodotus  and  the  Dacian  war,  the 
Skoloti  had  either  retired  or  become  amalga- 
mated ;  so  that  the  Dacian  population  lay  in  one 
large  uniform  mass  from  the  Vallum  Romanum  in 
Hungary  to  the  Solitude  of  the  Getce  in  Bessa- 
rabia. The  reasons  for  this  are  drawn  from  the 
language. 

1.  This  is  uniform  throughout,  and  uniformity 
of  speech  in  the  case  of  exotic  languages,  is  prima 

facie  evidence  of  the  uniformity  in  both  the  tongue 
which  is  introduced  and  the  original  tongue  of 
the  country.  For  identical  fruits  we  must  have 
like  stocks  as  well  as  like  grafts.  The  Roman  in 
a  Keltic  country  becomes  French ;  in  an  Iberic, 
Spanish. 

2.  The  terminations  -ensii  and  -dava  are  com- 
mon to  the  whole  Dacian  area —  Predan-ewsii, 
Rhatac-£?W5M,  A\hoc-ensii,  Burid-ewsii,  Potulat- 
ensiif  Ssitr-ensii,  S-ensiif  Cot-ensii,  Cauco-ensii  — 
Com.i-dava,  Verohori-davaf  l^hsuni-davaj  Neter- 
dava,  BuTii-dava,  Argi-dava,  &c. 

Of  the  uniformity  of  language  no  country,  of 
which  the  early  history  is  equally  obscure,  shows 
stronger  proofs  than  ancient  Dacia. 

The  reasons  for  believing  this  to  have  been  Sar- 
matian  will  be  given  in  the  sequel. 

Tolerably  pure,  for  a  Danubian  population,  the 
Rumanyos  of  Wallachia  are  Romano  -  Slavonic. 
In  Moldavia  there  is  a  trace  of  Turk  (Skolo- 
tic)  blood. 


SERVIA.  185 

Servia. — Our  divisions  are  political ;  so  Servia, 
as  an  independent  principality,  must  be  dealt  with 
by  itself;  and  as,  from  their  complexity,  the  Aus- 
trian and  Ottoman  empires  are  reserved  for  the 
last,  it  will  be  separated  from  the  areas  with  which 
it  is  most  immediately  connected — Southern  Hun- 
gary and  Bosnia. 

Bounded  by  the  rivers  Drin  and  Timoc,  the 
present  principality  coincides  nearly,  though  not 
quite,  with  the  Roman  Province  of  Moesia  Supe- 
rior. 

The  valley  of  the  Margus  is  the  famous  Plain  of 
the  TribalH  (TpL^aWiKov  TreBiov) ;  the  mountains, 
those  of  the  Macedonian,  lUyrian,  and  Bulgarian 
frontiers. 

There  is  the  special  evidence  of  Strabo  that  the 
Triballi  and  Moesi  were  Thracians,  and  that  the 
Thracians  and  Dacians  spoke  the  same  language. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  learn  from  the  same  writer, 
that  immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Triballi,  the 
Thracian  type  ended  and  the  Illyrian  began. 
Without  at  present  asking  what  this  class  may 
be,  it  is  important  to  know  that  three  such  large 
groups  are  reducible  to  any  single  class  at  all. 
Neither  is  internal  evidence  wholly  wanting  for 
Upper  Mcesia,  the  only  portion  of  the  Lower 
Danube  now  under  notice.  There  is  but  a  short 
list  of  geographical  names  :  it  contains,  however, 
a  Thermi-dava  and  aVic-ensii, 

We  know  almost  as  much  of  the  wars  of  the 


186  MONTENEGRO. 

Macedonians  against  the  Triballi,  as  of  those  of 
the  Romans  against  the  Moesi.  Philip  and  Alex- 
ander each  imperfectly  reduced  them.  The  reign 
of  Augustus  is  signalized  by  the  Dalmatian  and 
Pannonian  triumphs.  Upper  Mcesia  was  reduced 
at  the  same  time. 

Montenegro, — In  the  small  Republic  of  Monte- 
negro, of  which  the  southern  side  is  bounded  by 
Albania,  the  population  is  Slavonic,  differing 
from  that  of  Bosnia  and  Hertzegovna  only  in 
being  independent  of  the  Porte,  and  Christian 
instead  of  Mahometan.  The  impracticable  cha- 
racter of  the  country,  and  the  martial  spirit  of  its 
occupants,  have  preserved  this  single  spot  free 
from  Turkish  conquest.  How  far  the  blood  is 
pure  is  doubtful :  since  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
conquest  of  Dalmatia,  as  well  as  that  of  the  Greek 
settlements  about  Epidaurus  is  undetermined, 
neither  is  there  any  clear  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  earliest  ancestors  of  the  Skipetar  and 
the  early  ancestors  of  Slavonians  in  regard  to  their 
respective  frontiers,  north  and  south.  It  is  pro- 
bable, indeed,  that  the  very  earliest  occupants  of 
the  Montenegro  (Czernogora,  or.  Black  Mountain) 
may  have  belonged  to  the  former  population ;  at 
present,  however,  the  antipathy  between  the  two 
nations  is  extreme ;  and  in  no  part  of  the  whole 
Slavonic  area  are  the  Slavonic  characteristics  more 
marked  than  in  Montenegro. 


187 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FRISIAN,    SAXON,    DUTCH,    AND    GOTHIC    GERMANS. — GERMANIZED 

KELTS. — GERMANIZED    SLAVES. — PRUSSIA. ISOLATION   OF   ITS 

AREAS.  —  EAST   AND    WEST    PRUSSIA. PRUSSIAN    POLAND. 

POMERANIA.  PRUSSIAN     SILESIA. PRUSSIAN      SAXONY.  

BRANDENBURG. — UCKERMARK.  —  SOUTH-WESTERN  PORTION.— 
WESTPHALIAN  AND  RHENISH  PRUSSIA. MECKLENBURG. SAX- 
ONY.— LINONESOFLUNEBURG. — HANOVER  AND  OLDENBURG. 

HOLLAND. —  HESSE- CASSEL,    HESSE -DARMSTADT,     NASSAU. 

BADEN. WURTEMBURG. — WEIMAR. RHENISH    BAVARIA.  — 

DANUBIAN    BAVARIA. 

As  a  general  rule  the  Germanic,  or  Gothic, 
stock  has  not  only  held  its  own  area  from  the 
earliest  time,  but  has  encroached  on  that  of  others, 
so  that  although  there  are  many  parts  of  Europe, 
which,  once  the  occupancy  of  non-Germanic  po- 
pulations, have  now  become  more  or  less  Ger- 
man, the  converse  rarely,  if  ever,  can  be  shown 
to  have  taken  place.  Hence,  almost  all  the  dis- 
tricts which  were  originally  German,  are  German 
now.  The  chief  exception,  if  it  be  one,  occurs  in 
Belgium,  where  the  Gallo-Roman  family,  has, 
perhaps,  encroached  on  the  Gothic. 

But,   though  the  Old  Germany  be  Germanic 


188  THE    GOTHIC 

still,  there  is  a  great  part  of  the  Modern  Ger- 
many which  was  not  so  even  at  the  beginning  of 
the  historical  period.  Some  portion  of  the  pre- 
sent area  was  Keltic,  and  a  still  greater  was  Sar- 
matian.  Besides  which,  the  original  population 
of  no  inconsiderable  section  is  uncertain.  All 
this  somewhat  reduces  the  simplicity  of  the  eth- 
nology. And  to  this,  it  must  be  added,  that  the 
Teutonic  (or  German)  branch  of  the  great  Gothic 
stock  falls  into  some  important  divisions.  The 
Frisians  of  Friesland  represent  one  of  these,  our 
Anglo-Saxon  ancestors  another,  the  Old  Saxons 
of  Westphalia  a  third,  the  Low  Dutch  of  Hol- 
land a  fourth,  the  High  Dutch  of  Bavaria  a  fifth, 
the  Goths  of  the  Old  Ostrogoth  and  Visigoth 
conquests  a  sixth.  Now  the  intestine  movements 
of  these  different  divisions  have  always  been 
great ;  so  that,  although  we  shall  rarely  hear  of 
any  Germanic  population  having  been  overlaid  by 
Slavonians  or  Kelts,  the  phenomenon  of  Saxons 
superseded  by  Low  Dutch,  Low  Dutch  by  High 
and  other  similar  displacements  will  be  common. 

The  divisions,  then,  of  the  Germanic  area  are 
as  follows : — 

1st.  There  is  the  pure  and  proper  country  of 
the  indigenous  Germans,  wherein  all  the  impor- 
tant elements  of  admixture  are  limited  to  the  dif- 
ferent divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  Germanic 
family. 


AN   ENCROACHma    STOCK.  189 

2nd.  There  is  the  area  which  was  originally 
Sarmatian  falling  into — 

a.  The  Lithuanic,  and — 

6.  The  Slavonic  districts. 

3rd.  There  is  the  tract  which  was  originally 
Keltic. 

4th.  The  parts  whose  original  ethnology  is 
uncertain. 

The  details  of  the  different  political  divisions 
supply  us  with  the  commentary  on  this  classifica- 
tion. 

Prussia. — The  kingdom  of  Prussia  well  illus- 
trates the  difficulty  of  making  ethnology  and 
politics  agree.  It  falls  into  two  parts  separated 
from  each  other.  Of  these  the  first,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  its  south-western  corner, 
was  wholly  Sarmatian  in  the  tenth  century  ;  as 
Sarmatian  as  England  was  Keltic,  or  Spain  Iberic. 
The  population,  too,  was  referable  to  both 
branches  of  the  Sarmatian  stock  —  the  Slavonic 
as  well  as  the  Lithuanic. 

In  East  Prussia  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  geo- 
graphical names  are  not  German.  Neither  are 
they  Russian.  The  Old  Prussian,  a  member  of 
the  Lithuanic  family  of  languages,  was  spoken 
here  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century,  remains  of 
which,  in  the  shape  of  a  catechism,  are  extant. 
This  is  the  language  of  the  ancient  ^styi,  or 
Men  of  the  East,  which  Tacitus  says  was  akin  to 
the  British,  an  error  arising  from  the  similarity 


190  POMERANIA. 

of  name,  since  a  Slavonian  (if  such  were  the  ori- 
ginal source  of  his  information)  would  call  the 
two  languages  by  names  so  like  as  Prytskaia  and 
Brytshaia,  and  a  German  (if  the  authority  were 
Germanic)  by  names  so  like  as  Pryttisc  and 
Bryttisc.  The  Guttones,  too,  of  Pliny,  whose 
locality  is  fixed  from  the  fact  of  their  having  been 
collectors  of  the  amber  of  East  Prussia  and  Cour- 
land,  were  of  the  same  stock.  The  name  by 
which  they  were  known  to  the  Slavonians  with- 
in the  historical  period  was  Guddon=-GothoneSi 
Guttones, 

In  West  Prussia  the  extermination  or  amalga- 
mation of  the  native  Lithuanians  was  earlier. 
We  4iave  no  specimens  of  their  language.  We 
know,  however,  that  the  country  took  its  name 
from  them.  They  seem  to  have  been  the  most 
western  members  of  their  family.  The  southern 
frontier  of  the  present  Prussia  is  Polish. 

Prussian  Poland — the  Duchy  of  Posen  —  is 
now,  as  it  always  has  been,  Sarmatian,  Slavonic, 
Lekh,  Lygian. 

Pomerania,  too,  retains  vestiges  of  its  Slavonic 
population  in  the  Kaszeh,  Kassubes,  or  Kas- 
subitcBf  occupants  of  the  peninsula  and  islands  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Oder.  The  name,  too,  of  the 
province  at  large,  is  Slavonic ;  po=on-]-more^= 
sea=coast-land. 

The  Isle  of  Rugen  was  one  of  the  last  strong- 


BRANDENBURG. THE  MARCHES.  191 

holds  of  Slavonic  Paganism,  as  is  shown  by  its 
numerous  antiquities,  and  by  the  evidence  of  his- 
tory. The  famous  temple  of  the  Obotrite  Slavo- 
nians was  there  ;  though  Mecklenburg  rather  than 
Pomerania  was  the  part  of  the  continent  to  which 
they  belonged. 

In  Prussian  Silesia,  the  Serskie  of  Lower  and 
the  Srhie  of  Upper  Lusatia,  still  Slavonic,  retain 
their  language,  and  represented  the  older  popula- 
tion of  the  whole  country. 

The  Saale  was  the  original  boundary  between 
the  Germans  and  the  Slaves,  all  between  Thu- 
ringia  and  Poland  belonging  to  that  stock.  Cer- 
tain as  this  is  from  the  accounts  of  the  conquest 
under  the  Carlovingian  empire,  the  details  are 
difficult  for  Prussian  Saxony,  Altmark,  and  Bran- 
denburg. The  Hevelli  were  on  the  Hevel ;  the  Sto- 
derani,  Brizani,  Betlienici,  Dossani,  and  Smeldingi 
filled  up  much  of  the  valleys  of  the  Oder  and  the 
Elbe :  we  cannot,  however,  fill  up  the  whole 
tract.  Yet,  the  names  of  the  Marches,  or  Bor- 
derSi  show  that  the  encroachment  was  gradual. 
First,  and  nearest  to  Germany,  is  the  old  march 
{Altmark) ;  after  this,  the  Middle  march  (Mittel 
mark) ;  and  then  the  March  of  the  Ukrians  (Ucker- 
mark),  all  originally  frontiers  between  the  en- 
croaching Germans  and  the  retiring  Slavonians, 
and  all  frontiers  within  the  historical  period. 
But  Ucker-mdiik  was  a  Border,  or  Debatable 


192  UCKERMARKW — ESTPHALIA. 

land  in  the  eyes  of  the  Slavonians,  as  well  as  their 
conquerors;  and  the  name  of  its  original  occu- 
pants signified  Borderers,  The  kr-  is  the  kr-  in 
\]-krain-y  as  well  as  in  the  word  Grenz,  which, 
though  German  at  present,  is  in  origin,  Slavonic. 
The  form  Uckri,  Ucrani,  and  Uncrani,  indicate 
this.  Perhaps,  though  only  perhaps,  this  Ukrian 
March'— this  Brandenburg  Ukraine — may  have 
separated  the  most  western  Lithuanians  of  Prussia 
from  the  Slavonians  of  the  water-system  of  the 
Oder ;  if  so,  the  word  is  an  instrument  of  cri- 
ticism, as  it  certainly  is  in  many  other  interest- 
ing instances. 

In  part  of  the  circle  of  Kotbus,  the  Sorabian 
of  Silesia  is  still  spoken. 

The  south-western  districts  of  Prussia  east 
of  the  Saale,  Hesse,  an  outlying  portion  of  Ha- 
nover, and  Weimar,  along  with  a  narrow  strip 
on  the  Brunswick  frontier,  are  the  only  parts 
of  the  western  half  of  the  Proper  Brandenburg 
Prussia  that  began  with  being  Germanic ;  and 
even  here  there  seems  to  have  been  intermixture. 
The  Hanoverian  frontier  seems  to  have  been 
wholly  Slavonic. 

Of  Rhenish  Prussia,  Westphalia  was  originally 
Saxon  —  not  exactly  Angle  or  Anglo-Saxon,  but 
slightly  differing  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  in  lan- 
guage. It  was  0/c?-Saxon.  The  Old-Saxon  lan- 
guage, however,  is  extinct,  and  the  blood  con- 


SAXONY.  193 

siderably  mixed.  Encroaclinient  and  conquest  of 
Low  Dutch  and  High  Dutch  Germans  from  the 
South,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  effected 
this.  There  were,  also,  a  few  Slavic  colonies. 
Otherwise  the  blood  is  German ;  though  neither 
wholly  Dutch  nor  wholly  Saxon.  The  old 
tribes  of  Westphalian  Prussia  were  the  Chamavi, 
Bructeri,  and  Angrivarii. 

In  Berg,  Cleves,  and  the  parts  about  Cologne, 
the  Ubii,  Tenchteri,  Sicambri,  and  other  allied 
tribes,  were,  probably,  Dutch  rather  than  Saxon, 
and  Low  Dutch  rather  than  High.  On  the  French 
frontier  there  is  a  Keltic  basis ;  Cologne  claims  a 
notable  amount  of  Roman  blood. 

Mecklenburg. — The  great  Slavonic  nation  of 
Mecklenburg  was  the  Obotrites  ;  after  them  the 
Wilzi,  the  Tollenzi,  and  the  Rethrarii  of  the  old 
pagan  town  of  Rethre,  The  dukes  of  Mecklen- 
burg alone,  of  all  the  numerous  dynasts  of  Ger- 
many, are  of  Slavonic  extraction. 

Saxony. — Either  conquered  from  Westphalian 
Saxony,  or  settled  by  Saxon  colonies,  the  king- 
dom to  which  Dresden  is  the  metropolis,  origi- 
nally the  country  of  the  Semnones,  is  German 
only  in  language.  In  blood  it  belongs  to  the 
same  division  with  Silesia ;  indeed  the  Sorabian 
frontier  (for  so  the  Srbie,  and  Serskie  may  conve- 
niently be  called)  extended  as  far  westwards  as 
the  Saale. 


194  HANOVER. 

Hanover. — From  Hanover,  the  north-east  quar- 
ter (there  or  thereabouts)  must  be  deducted  as 
Slavonic.  Luneburg  took  its  name  from  the  Sla- 
vonic Linones,  whose  language  was  spoken  in  a 
few  villages  as  late  as  the  last  century. 

The  remaining  three-fourths  are  German;  and 
from  the  extent  of  the  kingdom  and  the  irregu- 
larity of  its  outline,  four  out  of  the  six  divisions 
of  the  old  Germanic  populations  may  have  been 
contained  in  it. 

From  the  Ems  to  the  Elbe,  extended  to  an 
undetermined  distance  inland,  the  ancient  tribes 
were  the  Chauci  and  Frisii,  who  were  Frisians, 
Embden  is  the  capital  of  East  Friesland,  where 
the  Frisian  language  was  general  until  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  where,  in  one  or  two  local- 
ities, it  is  still  spoken  at  the  present  moment. 

A  line  drawn  from  the  Dutch  district  of 
Drenthe  to  the  Hartz  would  pass  through  the 
country  of  the  Old  Saxons ;  one  from  Hamburg 
to  Minden,  through  that  of  the  Angl0'Sa.:K.ons, 
The  Longobardi,  Chatti,  and  Cherusci,  some  por- 
tions of  whom,  whether  High  or  Low,  were 
Dutch,  extended  towards  the  Hartz.  Soon  after 
this  the  Slavonic  area  began. 

Oldenburg. — Undoubtedly  Frisian  in  its  north- 
em,  Oldenburg  was  either  Frisian  or  Old  Saxon 
in  its  southern,  parts. 

Holland.  —  If  the  Dutch  of  Holland  be  the  in- 


GOTHIC  AREA.  195 

digenous  dialect  of  any  part  of  that  country,  it 
is  only  so  for  the  southern  third  of  it.  The  Fris- 
ians are  the  oldest  occupants. 

Hesse- Cassel,  Hesse -Darmstadt,  and  Nassau, 
the  two  former,  the  localities  of  the  Chatti,  take 
us  from  the  Saxons  and  Frisians  to  the  true  Dutch 
or  Germans.  At  present  their  language  is  High 
German.  Probably,  it  was  so  at  the  beginning. 
I  do  not,  however,  pretend  to  say  where  the  Low- 
Dutch  form  of  speech  originated.  It  has  en- 
croached upon  the  Frisian  and  Saxon  ;  and,  in  all 
the  parts  where  it  is  now  spoken,  with  the  ex- 
ception, perhaps,  of  the  parts  below  Cologne,  is 
of  foreign  origin.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
the  High  German  of  Franconia,  Suabia,  and  Ba- 
varia has  encroached  on  it. 

Weimar,  Gotha,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Schwartz- 
burg,  Coburg,  and  the  south-western  corner  of 
Prussia,  are  considered  to  form  the  area  of  the 
ancestors  of  those  Germans  who,  in  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  centuries  played  so  conspicu- 
ous a  part  on  the  Lower  Danube,  under  Alaric, 
Theodoric,  and  others.  The  following  is  sub- 
mitted as  a  sketch  of  their  history.  As  the  Her- 
munduri  of  the  country  in  which  the  Albis  (the 
Saale  rather  than  the  Bohemian  Elbe)  rises,  they 
are  known  to  Tacitus;  but  their  power,  as  ele- 
ments of  the  great  empire  of  Maroboduus  has 
been  felt  by  the  Romans  of  Rhaetia  and  Vindelicia 


196  THE   GOTHS. 

nearly  a  century  earlier.  Encroaching  south- 
wards, and  crossing  the  watershed  of  the  Elbe 
and  Danube  (the  Fichtelgebirge)  they  displace 
the  probably  Slavonic  occupants  of  the  valley  of 
the  Naab ;  press  on  further  both  southwards  and 
eastwards ;  form,  along  their  line,  with  the  nations 
to  the  north,  a  March,  but  not  of  a  character  so 
hostile  as  to  exclude  the  formation  of  confede- 
racies formidable  to  Rome,  under  the  name  of 
Marcomanni ;  make  their  permanent  settlements 
on  the  northern  side  of  the  Lower  Danube; 
harass  the  Roman  provinces,  Thrace  and  Moesia, 
until,  themselves  harassed  by  the  Huns,  they 
cross  the  Danube  and  effect  settlements  in  Moesia, 
where  they  become  Arian  Christians,  and  read 
the  Gospel  of  Ulphilas,  in  their  native  tongue. 
Portions  retrace  their  steps,  still  marking  their 
way  by  conquest.  Ataulphus  in  Gaul,  Wallia 
in  Spain,  Theodoric  in  the  Italy  of  the  sixth, 
and  Alaric  in  the  Italy  of  the  fifth  century,  all 
having  been  Goths  of  this  division.  They  leave 
Germany  as  Grutungs  and  Thervings  (Thurin- 
gians),  become  Marcomanni  along  the  Bohemian 
and  Moravian  frontiers,  Goths  *  Ostrogoths  and 
Visigoths,  on  the  Lower  Danube  (or  the  land  of 
the  GetcB),  and  Moesogoths  (from  the  locality  in 
which  they  became  Christian)  in  Moesia. 

*  The   details   of  this  theory  are  given  in  the   author's 
'•'  Gerraania  of  Tacitus,  with  Ethnological  Notes,"  §  Goths. 


WURTEMBURG,  BADEN,  BAVARIA.  197 

Wurtemburg,  Baden,  and  Hohenzollern  coin- 
cide with  the  Agri  Decumates  of  the  Roman  wri- 
ters, The  original  inhabitants,  I  believe,  to  have 
been  Slaves  and  Kelts;  then  Kelts  more  exclu- 
sively (the  Gauls  of  the  western  bank  of  the 
Rhine  having  encroached) ;  then  a  heterogeneous 
mass  of  Gauls,  Boii,  Suevi,  and  Vindelicians,  oc- 
cupying a  sort  of  Debatable  Land  between  the 
Roman  and  non-Roman  areas ;  lastly  Alemanni 
and  Suevi,  the  latter  being  Germans,  the  former 
a  mixture  of  populations  with  the  Germanic  ele- 
ment preponderating.  From  these  are  descended 
the  present  occupants. 

Bavaria,  like  Prussia,  falls  into  two  divisions  ; 
the  Bavaria  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  Bavaria  of 
the  Danube,  In  Rhenish  Bavaria  the  descent  is 
from  the  ancient  Vangiones  and  Nemetes,  either 
Germanized  Gauls,  or  Gallicized  Germans,  with 
Roman  superadditions.  Afterwards,  an  exten- 
sion of  the  Alemannic  and  Suevic  populations 
from  the  right  bank  of  the  Upper  Rhine  com- 
pletes the  evolution  of  their  present  Germanic 
character. 

Danubian  Bavaria  falls  into  two  subdivisions. 

North  of  the  Danube  the  valley  of  the  Naab, 
at  least,  was  originally  Slavonic,  containing  an 
extension  of  the  Slavonic  population  of  Bohemia. 
But  disturbance  and  displacement  began  early. 
The  Thervings  and  Grutungs  from  the  north  of 


198  BAVARIA. 

the  Fichtelgebirge  made  their  way  to  the  Danube 
along  these  lines. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  the  Suevi 
and  Alemanni  extended  themselves  from  the  up- 
per Rhine. 

The  western  parts  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Wurtem- 
burg  frontier,  perhaps  as  Slavonic  as  the  valley 
of  the  Naab,  differ,  in  their  subsequent  history, 
by  having  witnessed  displacements  from  the  south 
and  west,  from  the  Helvetians  of  Switzerland, 
and  the  Boii  of  Gaul,  rather  than  from  the  Ger- 
mans on  the  north.  The  later  changes  are  the 
same  in  both  cases. 

The  north-western  parts  of  Bavaria  were  pro- 
bably German  from  the  beginning. 

South  of  the  Danube  the  ethnology  changes. 
In  the  first  place  the  Roman  elements  increase ; 
since  Yindelicia  was  a  Roman  Province.  What, 
however,  was  the  original  basis  ?  .  Probably,  Sla- 
vonic on  its  eastern,  Helvetian  or  Keltic  on  the 
western  side.  Its  present  character  has  arisen 
from  an  extension  of  the  Germans  of  the  upper 
Rhine. 


T59 


CHAPTER  IX. 


GREAT   BRITAIN. —  DENMARK. — THE  ISLANDS. THE  VITHESLETH. 

FYEN. LAUENBURG.  —  HOLSTEIN. — SLESWICK. —  JUTLAND. 

— ICELAND. — THE  FEROE  ISLES. — NORWAY.' — SWEDEN. LAPPS. 

KWAINS.  — GOTHLANDERS.  —  ANGERMANNIANS. — THEORY  OF 

THE    SCANDINAVIAN    POPULATION. 


As  the  ethnology  of  the  British  Islands  is  made 
the  subject  of  a  separate  volume,*  the  present 
notice  will  be  confined  to  the  simple  statement  of 
the  Irish,  the  Scotch  Gaels,  the  Manksmen,  and 
the  Welsh  being  Kelts,  and  the  English,  Ger- 
mans; the  Keltic  populations  being  indigenous, 
the  German,  intrusive. 

Scandinavia  comes  next  in  order,  the  arrange- 
ment being  strictly  natural ;  since,  whatever  may 
have  been  the  original  population  of  Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden,  the  present  is  of  Germanic 
origin,  and  speaks  a  language  belonging  to  the 
great  Gothic  class;  the  Danish  and  Swedish 
being  mutually  intelligible. 

The  Islands. — The  Danish  Islands  fall  into  two 
groups,  one  containing  the  Isle  of  Fyen,  the  other 

*  "  The  Ethnology  of  the  British  Islands." 


200  THE   DANISH   ISLANDS. 

the  ancient  Vithesleth,  or  the  four  islands  of  Sea- 
land,  Laaland,  Moen,  and  Falster.  This  division 
is  ancient,  and  in  the  eyes  of  some  of  the  older 
writers  of  considerable  import ;  since  the  true 
country  of  Dan,  the  eponymus  of  the  Danes,  was 
not  Jutland,  no|  yet  Skaane  (the  southern  part  of 
Sweden),  nor  yet  Fyen.  It  was  the  Four  Islands 
of  the  Vithesleth :  —  "  Dan — rex  primo  super 
Sialandiam,  Monam,  Falstriam,  et  Lalandiam, 
cujus  regnum  dicebatur  Vithesleth.  Deinde 
super  alias  provincias  et  insulas  et  totum  reg- 
num."— Petri  Olai  Chron.  Regum  Daniae.  Also, 
"  Yidit  autem  Dan  regionem  suam,  super  quam 
regnavit,  Jutiam,  Fioniam,  Withesleth,  Scaniam, 
quod  esset  bona."— Annal.  Esrom.  p.  224. 

That  this  word  Vithesleth  is  a  compound,  that 
its  first  element  is  a  Gentile  name,  and  that  the 
population  which  bore  it  was  other  than  the 
modern  Danes  will  be  suggested,  in  the  sequel. 
At  present  it  is  enough  to  remember  that  the 
existing  population  of  the  four  eastern  islands  is 
Germanic  on  a  hitherto  unvestigated  basis.  The 
men  of  the  Vith-es-leth.  it  is  convenient  to  call 
Fitce. 

In  Fyen  the  Gothic  elements  are  the  same  as 
in  the  Vithesleth,  the  differentice  consisting  in  the 
difierence  of  the  original  basis,  provided  that  such 
existed.  This  may  or  may  not  have  been  the  case  ; 
since  it  by  no   means   follows  that   because   the 


THE   DUCHIES. 

islands  of  the  Yithesleth  differed  from  Fyen,  that 
difference  was  ethnological.  It  may  have  been 
only  political. 

Lauenhurg. — In  the  tenth  century  Lauenburg 
is  Slavonic ;  its  occupants  being  a  population 
called  Po-labi;  called  also  Po-lab-ingii.  As  po 
means  on,  and  Laba  is  the  Slavonic  form  for  the 
Elbe,  the  name  is  a  compound,  like  Pomerania 
{on  the  sea).  The  Polabi,  then,  were  the  Sla- 
vonians of  the  Elbe.  They  were  an  extreme 
population ;  since  the  river  Bille  divided  them 
from  the  Germans  of  Stormar,  Holstein,  and  Dit- 
marsh.  But  though  the  Polabi  of  Lauenburg 
were  a  frontier  population  they  were  not  isolated. 
They  were  in  geographical  continuity  with  the 
Linones  of  Luneburg,  and  the  Obotrites  of  Meck- 
lenburg. Reduced  by  the  Carlovingian  Franks, 
Lauenburg  became  Low  German  ;  as  it  is  at  the 
present  time. 

Holstein. — The  name  of  the  duchy  is  German, 
and  derived  from  a  German  population — the  Hoi- 
sati.  But  the  Holsati  were  neither  the  only 
occupants,  nor  the  only  Germans  of  these  parts. 
The  Stormarii  of  Stormar,  and  the  Dietmarsi  of 
Ditmarsh  are  equally  mentioned  by  the  writers 
of  the  eighth  century.  Earlier  still  we  hear  of 
the  Sabalingii  and  Sigulones.  The  Holsati, 
Dietmarsi,  and  Stormarii,  were  either  Angles  or 
Frisians. 


202  JUTLAND. 

So  much  for  the  western  half  of  the  duchy. 
The  eastern  was  Slavonic ;  even  as  Lauenburg 
was  Slavonic,  the  particular  population  being 
that  of  the  WagrL  They  are  a  frontier  popu- 
lation ;  and  this  may,  possibly,  be  denoted  by 
the  name,  which  contains  the  same  elements  as 
that  of  the  Ucri  of  C/c/cermark,  and  the  Malo- 
russians  of  the  (//craine. 

Sleswick, — With  Slavonians  on  the  Baltic,  and 
Frisians  on  the  Atlantic,  the  original  ethnology  of 
Sleswick  seems  to  have  been  that  of  the  sister 
duchy.  In  Sleswick,  however,  the  Frisian  po- 
pulation still  exists,  extended  from  Husum  to 
Tondern.  In  Sleswick  also  we  have  a  portion 
of  the  Jute  population  of  Jutland. 

Jutland. — If  the  combination,  J-\- 1  as  it  occurs 
in  the  word  Jute,  being  the  same  as  the  G-\-tm 
Got,  or  Goth,  we  have  a  reason  in  favour  of  one 
of  its  earlier  populations  having  been  Lithuanic. 

Then  we  have  the  Slavonians  of  Holstein  and 
Sleswick  to  the  south.  How  far  these  extended 
northwards  is  uncertain.  Between  the  two,  how- 
ever, I  believe  that  eastern  Jutland,  at  least,  was 
Sarmatian  before  it  was  German. 

The  next  elements  were  Frisian ;  since  traces 
of  the  Frisian  occupancy  are  found  as  far  north 
as  the  Liimfjord — and  beyond  it. 

The  present  language  is  Danish. 

Originally  the  area  of  the  non-Germanic  Jutce, 


ICELAND.  203 

Jutland,  took  its  first  Germanic  population  from 
the  Frisian  area,  its  second  from  that  of  the  early 
Scandinavians.  Where  this  was,  and  what  the 
Jutae  were,  however,  are  complex  questions  which 
will  be  noticed  towards  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

Iceland, — The  Icelanders  are  one  of  the  purest 
populations  in  the  world.  Foreign  elements  arising 
out  of  the  admixture  of  any  population  antecedent 
to  the  present  there  are  none.  Foreign  elements 
in  the  original  stock  are  but  few ;  since  it  was  from 
Norway  and  not  from  Denmark  that,  in  the  ninth 
century,  the  island  was  peopled  ;  and  the  Nor- 
wegians are  the  purest  portion  of  the  Scandi- 
navian stock.  As  a  general  rule,  the  islanders 
are  somewhat  taller  than  the  Norsemen  of  the 
continent.  In  the  other  external  points  of  ap- 
pearance they  are  similar.  But  an  observation  of 
Dr.  Schleisner's  respecting  their  animal  heat  is 
important.  "  The  internal  warmth  of  the  human 
body  is  between  SQ.5°  and  37°  centigrade,  and 
this  passes  for  being  the  general  temperature  in 
aU  latitudes,  and  in  all  climates,  for  all  human 
beings,  except  new-born  children.  But  with  a 
very  delicate  thermometer,  well-fitted  for  the 
purpose  and  which  had  previously  been  tried  by 
other  excellent  instruments,  I  have  found  from 
experiments  on  twelve  healthy  individuals  that 
the  temperature  within  the  cavity  of  the  mouth 
was  as  follows  : — 


204  ICELAND. 

AGE.  DEGREES. 

23     37-3° 

18     37-5° 

17     37-2° 

19     37-5° 

24     37-^ 

20     36-5° 

18  37-8° 

17  37-6° 

19  .36-8° 

37 37-4° 

23  37-5° 

20  37-2° 

Average  37-27°  centigrade."  * 

As  far  as  this  differs  from  that  of  the  Nor- 
wegians— a  point  upon  which  our  information  is  so 
incomplete  as  to  make  the  previous  table  sugges- 
tive rather  than  conclusive — the  difference  must 
be  put  down  to  climate  and  similar  external  influ- 
ences, rather  than  to  that  of  what  is  called  race. 

The  Icelandic  language  has  altered  so  little 
within  the  last  one  thousand  years  that  it  is  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  old  Sagas  and  poems; 
Sagas  and  poems  which  every  Icelander  can  read. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  change  on  the  continent 
has  been  so  great  that  no  modern  dialect  of  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  or  Denmark,  is  intelligible  to  an 
Icelander.  Neither  is  any  dialect  that  of  the  old 
Scandinavian  literature. 

*  Island  undersogt  fra  en  laegevidenskabeligt  Synspunct,  af 
P.  A.  Schleisner,  M.D. 


NORWAY. 


205 


Feroe  Isles, — Here  the  population  is  from  Nor- 
way, as  pure  as  that  of  Iceland  ;  and  the  form  of 
speech  is  Icelandic  also.  The  popular  songs  of  the 
Feroe  Islanders  have  drawn  considerable  attention, 
and  been  well  illustrated.  They  read  the  critic  a 
lesson  of  caution,  in  showing  the  extent  to  which 
a  foreign  subject  may  be  thoroughly  naturalized ; 
so  much  so  as  to  wear  the  appearance  of  being 
indigenous.  Yet  the  subjects  are  those  of  the 
Nibelungen-Lied,  and,  as  such,  continental  in 
their  origin  ;  in  their  immediate  origin,  Scandi- 
navian, in  their  remote  origin,  German. 

Norway. — The  population  of  Norway  is  essen- 
tially Lapp  and  Norwegian,  with  the  addition  of 
a  few  Kwain  settlements. 

The  Norwegian  calls  the  Lapplander  a  Fin, 
so  that  the  district  or  march  of  the  Lapp  popula- 
tion of  Norway  is  called  Fin-mark.  But  it  is 
found  considerably  southwards  as  well. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of 
the  Fin  (Lapp)  population  of  Norway  in  1724, 
1845,  and  four  intermediate  periods  : — 


Finmark  

Nordland 

North  Trondjem 
South  Trondjem 
Hedemarken* 

1724. 

1756. 

1768. 

1825. 

1835. 

1845. 

2825 

3928 

478 

3210 

3260 

12,506 

1735 

181 

75 

41 

*  Stockfleth — Bidrag  til  Kundskah  om  Finnerne  i  Norge. 
-1848. 


206  KWAINS   OF   NORWAY. 

No  census  was  taken  for  the  years  and  districts 
to  which  no  number  is  assigned.  The  table, 
however,  invalidates  the  current  notion  that 
all  the  so-called  savage  races  are  in  a  state  of 
decrease. 

In  the  copper  districts  of  the  north  of  Norway 
there  is  a  considerable  number  of  Kwain  set- 
tlers, chiefly  employed  as  steady  and  industrious 
labourers  in  the  mines.  There  is  also  a  Kwain 
colony  in  the  districts  of  Soloers  called  Finskoven 
(the  Fin  Wood)  in  the  southern  part  of  Norway 
and  on  the  frontier  of  Sweden. 

The  rest  of  the  population  is  of  the  same  Ger- 
manic origin  as  the  Danes  and  Swedes  ;  though 
purer  than  either.  The  recent  and  superadded 
elements  are  but  few,  German  being  the  chief; 
and  Bergen  and  Christiania  being  the  towns  where 
they  are  commonest.  Of  the  Danish  elements 
no  account  is  taken ;  the  two  populations  being 
so  closely  allied.  Jewish  blood  is  non-existent ; 
owing  to  rigorous  laws  of  exclusion,  ill-assorted 
with  the  liberal  constitution  of  the  most  repub- 
lican government  in  Europe. 

A  Lapp  population  common  to  Russia  and 
Norway  is  common  to  Sweden  also  ;  the  districts 
in  the  last-named  countries  being  called  Zap-mark, 
and  the  population  Lapps. 

Populations  more  or  less  allied  to  the  Lapps, 
covering  the  southward  extension  of  the  present 


GOTHLAND.  207 

Lapp  area  were  originally  the  native  population 
of  both  Sweden  and  Norway.  This  is  generally 
admitted.  So  it  is  that  the  present  Germanic 
populations  are  not  aboriginal. 

That  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians  are  the 
newest  elements,  and  that  certain  Ugrians  were 
the  oldest,  is  undoubted.  But  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  the  succession  was  simple.  Between 
the  first  and  last  there  may  have  been  any  amount 
of  intercalations.  Was  this  the  case  ?  My  own 
opinion  is,  that  the  first  encroachments  upon  the 
originally  Ugrian  area  of  Scandinavia  were  not 
from  the_  south-west,  but  from  the  south-east,  not 
from  Hanover  but  from  Prussia  and  Courland,  not 
German  but  Lithuanic,  and  (as  a  practical  proof 
of  the  inconvenience  of  the  present  nomenclature) 
although  not  German,  Gothic. 

Sweden  to  the  south  of  the  Malar-See  is  called 
6^o^A-land.  The  opposite  coast  of  Prussia  and 
Courland  was  the  land  of  the  G^w^^-ones,  Goth- 
ones,  or  Gyth-ones  ;  in  the  eyes  of  a  German  and 
in  the  German  language,  a  Goth-land  also.  An 
island  in  the  Baltic,  midway,  is  called  Goth-land 
as  well.  What  is  the  natural  inference  from  this  ? 
Surely,  the  close  relationship  of  the  three  popu- 
lations. 

When  the  main  argument  rests  upon  some 
single  fact  of  primary  weight  or  importance,  a 
single  fact  to  which  nothing  of  equal  magnitude 


208     '         GOTHLAND. 

can  be  opposed,  the  neglect  of  subordinate  details 
is  excusable — at  least,  in  a  short  work.  If  they 
come  spontaneously,  and  are  of  a  satisfactory 
character — well  and  good.  They  are  no  part  of 
the  leading  argument. 

In  some  cases,  perhaps,  it  should  be  a  matter 
of  principle  to  abstain  from  them  ;  for  example, 
when  the  leading  argument,  although  good  in 
itself,  is  liable,  either  from  its  novelty  or  from 
the  amount  of  previous  opinions  which  it  con- 
tradicts, to  be  undervalued.  In  such  a  case,  the 
display  of  subsidiary  minutiae  subtracts  from 
its  weight.  They  make  it  look  weaker  than  it  is  ; 
weak  enough  to  require  all  the  support  that  the 
skill  of  its  author  can  devise.  In  deducing  the 
Greeks  from  Italy,  the  relations  between  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues,  the  great  difficulty  of 
explaining  them  otherwise  than  by  a  geographical 
continuity,  and  the  equal  difficulty  of  effecting  this 
continuity  by  any  of  the  ordinary  means  formed 
the  palmary  argument.  Such  details  as  fell  in 
with  this  view  were  put  down  to  gain  {apposita 
lucro).  They  were  also  good  against  similar  details 
on  the  opposite  side.  But  they  were  ex  ahundanti 
— at  least  in  the  first  instance.  To  have  neglected 
them  altogether  would  not  have  been  too  bold. 
To  have  paraded  them  unnecessarily  would  have 
subtracted  from  the  value  of  the  real  argument. 

A  comparative  depreciation  of  subsidiary  details 


GOTHLAND.  209 

appears  in  the  present  question ;  wherein  it  is 
held  that  certain  members  of  the  Lithuanian 
family  extended  their  area  across  the  Baltic  into 
parts  of  Scandinavia,  and  peopled  the  southern 
provinces  of  Sweden.  These  were  the  Goths  of 
Gothland,  the  Jutes  of  Jutland,  the  Vites  of 
Withesleth,  the  old  name  of  the  Danish  islands, 
anterior  to  their  occupation  by  the  Danes.  The 
critic  who  doubts  whether  the  names  are  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Goths,  on  the  strength  of  the  differ- 
ence of  form,  is  free  to  do  so  ;  but  by  doing  so,  he 
will  only  impugn  a  part  of  the  present  doctrine. 
That  the  Goths  of  Gothland  are  the  Gothones, 
Guttones,  or  Gythini  of  the  opposite  coast  of 
Prussia  and  Courland  is  the  important  inference  ; 
and  that  the  appearance  of  identical  or  similar 
names  on  the  opposite  coasts  of  an  inland  sea 
of  no  considerable  breadth  is  a  phenomenon 
which,  until  it  can  be  explained  otherwise,  nfust 
be  presumed  to  denote  ethnological  affinity  is 
the  principle  which  supports  it.  Whether  the 
Gothones  of  Courland  were  really  and  truly 
Lithuanian  is  a  point  upon  which  there  may  be 
a  difference  of  opinion ;  but  there  should  be  no 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  explanation  of  the 
presence  of  Goths  in  the  opposite  country  of 
Gothland.  The  common-sense  view  of  the  matter, 
and  the  ordinary  habits  of  interpretation  should 
take  their  course. 


210  GOTHLAND. 

This  may  be  admitted,   and  yet  an  objectioni 
be   taken   to  the  eiFect   that   the    Goths  of  the 
southern     Gothland    (the     Goth-oneSj     Gyth-ini,, 
Gutt'Ones)   were    not    Lithuanic    but    German. 
The  primary  argument  on  this  point  lies  in  the 
undoubted    fact   of    the    Goths    of    the    Lower 
Danube,  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  being ; 
German. 

But  this  primary  argument  is  considerably  in- 
validated  by   the  fact,  too  often  overlooked,   of! 
those   Germans   having   been   known   under   the! 
name  of  Goths   only  when   they  have  settled  im 
the  country  of  the  Getce  and  Gaudce,  a  fact  which  i 
makes  the  name  just  as  foreign  to  the  Teutonic: 
dialects    as    Briton   was    to    the    Anglo-Saxon. 
From  which  it  follows  that  all  other  populations  < 
which  were,  in  respect  to  their  name,  in  the  same- 
predicament  as  the  Goths  of  Alaric  and  Theo- 
doric,  were  connected  not  with  the  German  in- 
vaders, but  with  the  occupants    of  the  country 
invaded;  just   as   the    Bretons   of    Brittany  are|| 
connected    not   with   such    Englishmen    as    caliy 
themselves  patriotically  and  poetically  "  Britons,' 
but  with  the  Welsh  representatives  of  the  original 
occupants  of  the  Keltic  island  Britannia,     Now 
the   populations   thus   linked  together  by   some 
such  name  as   G-th,  G-t,  J-t,^  and   V-t   (all  of 
which  have  been   admitted  to  be   but  different 
*  The  "  J  "  is  pronounced  ''  Y." 


• 


GOTHLAND.  211 


forms  of  the  same  word)  are  numerous ;  three  of 
them  being  now  before  us. 

The  real  Goths,  Uke  the  real  Britons,  were 
something  very  different  from  their  German  con- 
querors. 

But  the  Gothic  historian  Jornandes,  deduces 
the  Goths  of  the  Danube  first  from  the  southern 
coasts  of  the  Baltic,  and  ultimately  from  Scan- 
dinavia. I  think,  however,  that  whoever  reads 
his  notices  will  be  satisfied  that  he  has  fallen  into 
the  same  confusion  in  respect  to  the  Germans  of 
the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Getae  whose  country 
they  settled  in,  as  an  English  writer  would  do 
who  should  adapt  the  legends  of  Geofiroy  of 
Monmouth  respecting  the  British  kings  to  the 
genealogies  of  Ecbert  and  Alfred  or  to  the  origin 
of  the  warriors  under  Hengist.  The  legends  of 
the  soil  and  the  legends  of  its  invaders  have  been 
mixed  together. 

Nor  is  such  confusion  unnatural.  The  real 
facts  before  the  historian  were  remarkable.  There 
were  Goths  on  the  Lower  Danube,  Germanic  in 
blood,  but  not  Germanic  in  name ;  the  name 
being  that  of  the  older  inhabitants  of  the  country. 
There  were  Gothones,  or  Guttones,  in  the  Baltic, 
the  essential  part  of  whose  name  was  Goth- ;  the 
-n-  being,  probably,  and  almost  certainly,  an 
nflexion. 
Thirdly,  there  were  Goths  in  Scandinavia,  and 


212  GOTHLAND. 

Goths  in  an  intermediate  island  of  the  Baltic. 
With  such  a  series  of  6ro^^-lands,  the  single  error  i 
of  mistaking  the  old  Getic  legends  for  those  of 
the  more  recent  Germans  (now  called  Goths), 
would  easily  engender  others  ;  and  the  most  dis- 
tant of  the  three  Gothic  areas  would  naturally 
pass  for  being  the  oldest  also.  Hence,  the  deduc- 
tion of  the  Goths  of  the  Danube  from  the  Scan- 
dinavian Gothland. 

The  exception,  then,  to  the  Lithuanic  origin 
of  the  GothlandeTy  which  lies  in  the  application  of 
the  name  Goth  to  a  population  undoubtedly  Ger- 
manic, is  itself  exceptionable ;  and  the  common- 
sense  interpretation  of  the  existence  of  similarly 
designated  populations  on  the  opposite  coasts  of 
an  inland  sea  must  take  its  course. 

The  exact  degree  to  which  Jornandes  con- 
founded the  German  invaders  with  the  original 
Goths  is  uncertain.  Some  of  his  facts  are  un- 
equivocally Getic,  as  his  notice  of  Zamolxis, 
Others  are  as  truly  Germanic.  The  name  Her- 
manric  is  this. 

Each,  however,  is  an  extreme  instance,  and  it 
is  only  at  its  extremities  that  the  question  is  easy. 
In  my  own  mind,  I  think  that  Getic  legends  and 
Getic  history  is  the  rule,  Germanic  the  excep- 
tion ;  in  other  words,  that  the  so-called  Gothic 
history  is  the  history  of  the  indigenes  rather  than 
that  of  the  invaders  of  the  soil.     It  is  even  likely 


AMALUNGS  AND  BALTUIfGS.  215 

that  Hermanric's  empire  was  German  only  as  the 
present  Austrian  empire  is  German,  i.e.,  German 
in  respect  to  its  chief.  Zengis-Khan's  was  Mon- 
golian in  the  same  way,  the  mass  of  his  subjects 
and  major  part  of  his  area  being  Turk.  What 
leads  to  this  is  the  likelihood  of  even  the  names 
of  the  royal  families  amongst  the  Ostrogoths  and 
Visigoths — Amalung  and  Baltung — being  Lithu- 
anic.  They  have  every  appearance  of  having 
arisen  out  of  eponymias.  At  any  rate  it  is  a 
strange  coincidence  to  find  one  of  the  localities 
of  the  amber-district  called  sometimes  Ahalus, 
and  sometimes  Baltia — the  latter  name  being  con- 
nected with  the  Belt  and  Baltic,  Pliny  (writes 
Prichard)  "in  giving  an  account  of  the  production 
of  amber  says,  that,  according  to  Pytheas,  there 
was  an  estuary  of  the  ocean  called  Mentonomon, 
inhabited  by  the  Guttones,  a  people  of  Germany. 
It  reached  six  thousand  furlongs  in  extent.  From 
this  place  an  island  named  Abalus  was  distant 
about  one  day's  sail,  on  the  shore  of  which  the 
waves  throw  up  pieces  of  amber.  The  inhabi- 
tants make  use  of  it  for  fuel,  or  else  sell  it  to 
their  neighbours  the  Teutones."  Pliny  says  that 
Timaeus  gave  full  credit  to  this  story,  but  that 
**  he  called  the  island  not  Abalus,  but  Baltia." 

Out  of  this  Abal-,  and  this  Bait-,  I  believe  the 
eponymic  names  of  Abal-ung  {Amal-ung  and 
Balt-ung)  grew,  just  as  Hellen  did  out  of  Hellas. 


214  GOTHS,   JUTES,   YITM, 

And  that  they  were  other  than  German  is  shown 
by  Tacitus,  since  the  amber  country  was  the 
country  of  the  ^styii,  whose  language  was  Bri- 
tannicce  proprior — Britannicce  meaning  Prussian, 
as  I  have  shown  elsewhere. 

In  bringing  within  the  same  class  all  the  popu- 
tion  denominated  Gothini,  Gothones,  Guttones, 
Gothi,  Gautae,  Gaudse,  Getse,  Jutae,  and  Vitse, 
I  only  do  what  nine  out  of  ten  of  my  predeces- 
sors have  done  before  me.  I  differ,  however, 
from  them  in  determining  the  character  of  the 
class  by  that  of  the  Guttones  of  the  amber 
country,  instead  of  that  of  the  Goths  of  Alaric 
and  Theodoric — these  last  being  Goths  only  as 
the  English  are  Britons,  or  the  Spaniards,  Mexi- 
cans. At  the  same  time  I  am  fully  aware  that 
any  evidence  whatever  showing  that  the  Germans 
of  the  Lower  Danube  were  called  Goths  anterior 
to  their  arrival  in  the  land  of  the  Getce,  would 
shake  my  doctrine,  and  that  unexceptionable  evi- 
dence would  throw  it  to  the  ground  altogether. 

The  theory  of  the  Scandinavian  populations  is 
diiferent  for  the  three  different  kingdoms. 

1.  Norway, — Norway  agrees  with  Sweden  in 
the  likelihood  of  its  earliest  population  having 
been  Ugrian — Ugrian  of  the  Lapp  type,  and  con- 
tinued southwards  from  Lapland  or  Finmark. 
Upon  these  the  ancestors  of  the  present  Nor- 
wegians encroached. 


DENMARK.  215 

2,  Sweden. — In  Norway  the  Germanic  popula- 
tion came  in  immediate  contact  with  the  Ugrian ; 
in  Sweden  it  was,  to  a  great  extent,  preceded  by 
one  from  Courland  and  Prussia  —  the  Goths. 
Hence,  the  ethnological  elements  in  Sweden  are 
one  degree  more  complex. 

3.  Denmark. — Denmark  differs  from  both  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  in  respect  to  its  primary  popula- 
tion ;  inasmuch  as  it  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  sea,  so  that  its  relations  to  the  Ugrian  area  of 
the  aboriginal  Scandinavia  are  those  of  an  island. 

Does  this  prevent  us  from  assuming  a  con- 
tinuity of  population  ?  I  cannot  say.  Although 
the  north  of  Jutland  is  separated  by  a  consider- 
able breadth  of  water  from  the  south  of  Scan- 
dinavia, Sealand  is  within  sight  of  the  south- 
western coast  of  Sweden,  and  the  south-western 
population  of  Sweden  might  easily  have  been  ex- 
tended into  Denmark.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  population  which  occupied  the  neck  of 
the  Chersonesus  may  with  equal,  if  not  greater 
reason,  be  considered  to  have  been  continued 
northward.  But  this  population  is  itself  complex, 
for  instead  of  belonging  to  a  single  stock,  we  find, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  historical  period,  Germans 
on  the  western,  and  Slavonians  on  the  eastern 
half  of  Holstein.  Which  of  these  populations 
was  continued  into  the  Cimbric  Chersonese  ?  Or 
was  there  a  third  stock   different  from   either? 


216  DENMARK. 

Or  did  each  fill  up  a  portion  of  the  area,  and  if 
so,   in  what  proportions  ?      My  own  opinion  in 
respect  to  these   complexities  is,  that  originally 
the  southern  half  (at  least)  of  the  Cimbric  Cher- 
sonese was   Slavonic,  even  as  the    Mecklenburg 
and  Lauenburg  frontiers  were  Slavonic ;  and  that, 
subsequently,  a  twofold  displacement  set-in — the 
Vitas  having  invaded  the  islands  and  the  north- 
eastern parts  of  Jutland  from  Prussia  and  Cour- 
land   by   sea,    and    the    Frisians   having   pressed 
forwards  from  the  Lower  Elbe  by  land.     Still,  it 
would  be  hazardous  to  assert,  that,  during  those 
primitive  periods,  when  the  whole  of  Norway  and 
Sweden  were  Ugrian — as  they,  once,  unquestion- 
bly  were  —  the   Danish    Isles   and   the    Cimbric 
Chersonese  were  not  Ugrian  also.     It  would  be 
hazardous  even  to  pronounce  that  the  whole  of  the 
southern  coast  of  the  Baltic  was  not  Ugrian  also 
— since  both  the  Slavonic  populations  of  Meck- 
lenburg and  Pomerania,  and  the  Lithuanians  of 
Prussia  and  Courland  belonged  to  the  encroach- 
ing divisions  of  our  species.     That  a  Ugrian  popu- 
lation extended  as  far  southward  and  westward  as 
the  Elbe  is  a  doctrine    that  may  be  maintained 
without  going  to  the  full  recognition  of  the  so- 
called  Finnic  hypothesis  ;  which  carries  the  popu- 
lations akin  to  the  Ugrian  as   far   south  as  the 
Pyrenees,  and  sees  in  the  Basques  of  Biscay  and 
the  Lapps  of  Lapland,  the  fragments  of  a  vast 


SCANDINAVIAN  CONQUEST.  217 

population  once  continuous,  but,  subsequently, 
broken  up  and  displaced  by  the  Keltic  and  Ger- 
manic occupancies  of  Gaul  and  Germany  respec- 
tively. 

The  history  of  the  present  Scandinavians, 
Danes,  Swedes,  and  Norwegians — must  be  con- 
sidered in  respect  to  (1)  the  line  of  conquest ;  (2) 
the  date  of  the  invasion ;  (3)  the  amount  of  foreign 
blood  introduced. 

1.  Ptolemy's  notice  of  Scandia  is,  that  "the 
western  parts  are  occupied  by  the  Chadeinoi,  the 
eastern  by  the  Phauonai  and  PhircEsoi,  the 
southern  by  the  Gautce  and  Daukiones,  the  middle 
by  the  LeuonoiJ" — Lib.  ii.  ii.  33.  "We  are  not  in 
the  habit  of  considering  these  Phircesoi  to  be 
Frisiif  yet  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  a  reason 
against  doing  so.  The  Frisian  occupancy  of  Jut- 
land, at  an  early  period,  is  undoubted,  and  it  is 
equally  undoubted  that,  of  all  the  German  dia- 
lects, the  Frisian  is  the  likest  to  the  Scandinavian. 

It  is  on  the  eastern  side  of  Norway  that  these 
Phircesoi  must  be  placed,  probably  to  the  south 
of  the  Miosen,  where  they  came  in  contact  with 
the  Chad-emoi  of  Hede-msixken,  There  is  a  little 
forcing  of  the  geography  here.  The  Goths  were, 
at  the  same  time,  in  possession  of  the  south  of 
Sweden.  These  Goths  seem  to  have  been  harder 
to  reduce  than  the  Ugrians,  so  that  the  line  of  the 
Frisian  (Phiraesian)  conquest  ran,  at  first,  from 


218  SCANDINAVIAN  CONQUEST. 

south  to  north,  but  afterwards  changed  its  direc- 
tion, and  effected  the  reduction  of  the  parts 
between  the  southern  border  of  Lapland  and  the 
Malar  Lake  ;  the  Goths  of  Gothland  being  the 
last  to  be  reduced. 

What  justifies  these  details  ?  The  Goths  of 
Gothland  have  already  been  considered.  They 
reached  as  far  as  the  parts  about  Stockholm. 
Now,  North  of  these  come  the  men  of  the  South, 
i,e.,  of  Suder -msiimalsind,  or  Suder -menna;  a 
name  which  is  explained  if  we  make  them  the 
most  southern  of  the  invaders  from  Norway,  but 
not  easily  explicable  otherwise.  This  is  the  case 
of  our  own  county  of  Suther-lsind  repeated ;  which 
was  the  most  southern  part  of  Norway,  though 
the  most  northern  part  of  Britain.  Further  de- 
tails, of  distribution  are  necessary  to  account  for 
the  name  of  the  province  of  ^Fig^^mannaland 
nearly,  but  not  quite,  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Sweden.  The  district  between  it  and  the  sea 
was  reduced  first. 

2.  The  date  must  have  been  earlier  than  the 
time  of  Ptolemy ;  indeed,  early  enough  to  allow 
for  the  development  of  the  differences  between 
the  Norse  and  Frisian  languages.  Reasons  for 
believing  that  this  requires  no  inordinate  length 
of  time  I  have  given  elsewhere.* 

*  "  The  Germania  of  Tacitus,  with  Ethnological  Notes,*'' 
Epilegomena  cxxxi. 


SCANDISrAVIAN  CONQUEST.  219 

3.  The  intermixture  of  blood,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  purity  of  the  present  stock,  I  believe 
to  have  varied  with  the  different  populations  w^ith 
which  the  Germanic  invaders  came  in  contact. 
Although  both  the  Lapp  and  Kwain  (i.e.j  the 
Laplander  and  the  Finlander)  are  Ugrian,  there  is 
this  important  difference  in  respect  to  their  rela- 
tions to  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians.  The  Kwain 
and  Scandinavian  intermarry ;  the  Lapp  and 
Scandinavian  do  not.  Hence  we  infer  that  in 
proportion  as  the  original  Ugrians  of  the  southern 
and  central  parts  of  Scandinavia  approached  the 
Lapp  type,  displacement  and  extermination  was 
the  rule,  intermixture  the  exception;  whereas, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  natives  of  the  Kwain  type 
may  have  amalgamated  with  their  invaders..  If 
so,  the  present  Scandinavian  stock  is  pure  or 
mixed  in  proportion  as  the  area  it  occupied  was 
Lapp  or  Kwain.  The  details  of  this  question  are 
difficult.  As  a  rough  rule,  however,  we  may  say 
that  the  basis  becomes  less  and  less  Ugrian  as  we 
proceed  northwards ;  inasmuch  as  the  type  be- 
came more  and  more  Lapponic,  and  the  Ger- 
manic intermixture  less  and  less. 

The  Gothlanders  from  the  first  were,  probably, 
half-bloods,  i.e.,  Ugrian  on  the  mother's  side,  as 
the  invasion  was  maritime.  The  extent  to  which 
they  are,  at  present,  Germanic  in  blood  as  well  as 
language,  is  uncertain. 


220  SCANDINAVIAN  CONQUEST. 

The  Goths  from  Prussia  effected  settlements  in 
Sweden,  why  not  also  the  Kwains  of  Finland  ?  1 
think  I  find  traces  of  their  having  done  so  in  the 
name  Anger-m.Sin-[andf  or  Angria,  which  can 
scarcely  be  supposed  to  resemble  the  name  of 
the  //z^er-man-land  or  Ingria,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  by  accident.  But  what  if  the  name  were 
not  native,  as  I  think  it  was  not  ?  In  that  case 
it  is  Goths  who  give  it — both  to  the  Ingrians  and 
the  Angrians.  If  so,  Gothland  must,  at  one  time, 
politically,  at  least,  have  reached  as  far  as  64° 
north  latitude,  the  parallel  of  Angermania. 

But  the  name  may  have  been  a  common  rather 
than  a  proper  one,  and  have  meant  simply  the 
March,  If  so,  a  Kwain  settlement  is  unneces- 
sary, and  Anger -manna-\dindi=^\he  Land  of  the 
men  of  the  frontier,  that  frontier  being  Lapp.  If 
so,  Zflpp-mark  is  its  Swedish  equivalent. 


221 


CHAPTER  X. 

RUMELIA. THE     TURK    STOCK. ZONES    OF    CONQUEST. —  EARLY 

INTRUSIONS    OF    TURK    POPULATIONS  WESTWARD. THRACIANS. 

THE  ANCIENT  MACEDONIANS. — THE  PELASGI  OF  MACEDONIA. 

— BOSNIA,    HERZEGOVNA    AND    TURKISH    CROATIA. — BULGARIA. 

The  European  population  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, laying  aside  Jews,  Armenians,  and  other 
similarly  non-indigenous  populations,  is  fivefold 
— Turk,  Greek,  Slavonic,  Rumanyo,  and  Alba- 
nian. The  Albanian,  how^ever,  it  was  necessary 
to  consider  in  the  first  chapter. 

Rumelia,  the  province  which  first  comes  into 
notice  is,  the  true  and  proper  area  of  the  Turks, 
Ottomans,  or  Osmanlis  ;  a  family  which,  consi- 
dered in  respect  to  European  ethnology,  is  as  un- 
important from  its  numerical  magnitude,  as  it  is 
recent  in  respect  to  its  introduction.  Yet  this  is  a 
fact  which  we  are  slow  to  perceive  at  first ;  since 
the  Turkish  empire  is  so  great,  that,  unless  we 
separate  its  ethnological  from  its  political  ele- 
ments, we  fail  to  realize  the  extent  to  which  the 
Osmanlis  are  not  only  intrusive,  but  inconsiderable. 
It  is  only  in  one  of  its  provinces  that  the  number 


222  RUMELIA. 

of  the  Osmanli  conquerors  so  nearly  approaches 
that  of  the  original  Europeans,  to  give  them  the 
appearance  of  the  natural  occupants  of  the  coun- 
try ;  this  being  the  province  in  question,  coin- 
ciding, as  nearly  as  possible,  with  the  Valley  of  the 
ancient  Hebrus,  or  the  modern  Maritza.  It  is  a 
wide  and  fruitful  plain,  that  Nature,  perhaps, 
meant  for  tillage,  but  which  the  pastoral  habits  of 
its  possessors  have  kept  a  grazing  country.  It  is 
a  plain,  with  the  exception  of  the  small  mountain 
ridges  on  each  side — the  Despoto-Dagh  and  the 
Stanches-Dagh — a  point  worth  remembering,  be- 
cause its  physical  conditions  determine  the  pro- 
bable permanence  of  its  earlier  populations  — 
populations  which,  in  all  impracticable  countries, 
are  likely  to  have  held  their  own  in  the  moun- 
tains, and  to  have  retreated  before  an  invader  in 
the  plains. 

As  A.D.  1453  is  the  date  of  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople by  Mahomet  II.  it  may  also  pass  for  the 
date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Osmanli  sway  in 
Europe,  and  the  Osmanli  preponderance  in  the 
particular  occupation  of  the  province  of  Rumelia ; 
for  the  time,  in  short,  when  ancient  Thrace  be- 
came Turkish.  But  the  preliminaries  had  been 
going  on  for  some  time  before,  and  it  was  as  early 
as  A.D.  1860  that  the  Hellespont  was  crossed  by 
Amurath  I.  Till  then,  the  Osmanli  belonged  to 
Asia  Minor,  Anatolia,  or  Roum,  as   it  was  called 


TURK  STOCK.  223 

from  the  declining  power  of  the  degenerate 
Romans  of  Constantinople.  But  they  were  not 
indigenous  even  there  ;  since  Roum  or  Anatolia 
was  a  conquered  country,  even  as  Rumelia  was — 
conquered,  too,  from  the  same  degenerate  and  fic- 
titious Romans.  Hence  the  stream  of  Ottoman 
blood  that  passed  from  Asia  to  Europe  was  by  no 
means  pure.  The  occupancy  of  Asia  Minor  was 
not  the  work  of  a  day  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  pro- 
cess of  appropriation  was  upwards  of  four  cen- 
turies in  duration  ;  since  the  conquest  of  the  race 
of  Seljuk  began  in  a.d.  1074.  And  this  again  was 
an  extension  of  frontier  from  Persia ;  and  Persia 
was  never  truly  Turk.  The  stream  that  spread 
and  wasted  itself  in  Europe  is  not  discovered  at 
its  fountain-head  until  we  have  traced  it  from 
Rumelia  to  Anatolia,  from  Anatolia  to  Persia,  and 
from  Persia  to  either  Turkistan  or  further.  Then, 
indeed,  we  find  amongst  the  most  southern  mem- 
bers of  the  great  Turk  stock,  amongst  those 
whose  blood  has  been  most  mixed,  and  amongst 
those  who  are  farthest  from  the  country  of  the 
Mongols  of  Mongolia,  the  great  great  ancestors 
of  the  family  and  followers  of  Othman. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  the  recorded 
movements  that  thus  brought  a  conquering  popu- 
lation from  the  Oxus  to  the  Hebrus  were  mili- 
tary—  marches  of  armies  consisting  of  hosts  of 
warriors.     That  anything  approaching  a  national 


224  TURK   STOCK. 

migration  wherein  the  females  bore  a  reason- 
able proportion  to  the  males  ever  took  place  in 
Turkish  ethnology  has  not  been  shown ;  so  that, 
on  the  mother's  side,  the  Osmanli  must,  in  ninety- 
nine  cases  out  of  one  hundred,  be  other  than 
Turk — sometimes  Persian,  sometimes  Armenian, 
sometimes  Georgian  or  Circassian,  sometimes 
Anatolian  (for  some  such  adjective  is  required  to 
denote  the  population  of  Asia  Minor),  sometimes 
European  —  and  when  European,  Greek,  Wal- 
lachian,  Albanian,  or  Slavonic. 

I  have  enlarged  upon  this  because  the  majority 
of  the  travellers  who,  in  Independent  Tartary, 
Siberia,  Turcomania,  or  Bokhara,  meet  with  the 
other  members  of  the  Turk  stock,  in  their  original 
homes,  are  struck  by  the  extent  to  which  they 
differ  in  physiognomy  from  the  Osmanli  or  Otto- 
man of  Europe.  They  are  often  smooth-skinned 
and  beardless,  glabrous  and  glaucous,  with  high- 
cheek  bones  and  oblique  eyes,  and  other  similar 
characteristics  of  the  Mongol.  The  inference 
from  this  has,  too  often,  been  the  wrong  way; 
and  an  infusion  of  Mongolian  blood  been  pre- 
sumed. The  truth  is,  that  it  is  the  Turks  of 
Europe  that  have  been  modified ;  at  any  rate,  it 
is  only  with  the  European  that  an  intermixture  of 
blood  at  all  proportionate  to  the  differences  of 
physical  conformation  can  be  shown  as  an  his- 
torical fact. 


TURK   STOCK.  225 

As  a  general  rule  the  Osmanli  prefers  pastoral 
to  agricultural  employment,  and  dominant  idleness 
to  either.  There  is  a  reason  for  his  preference  to 
flocks  and  herds  rather  than  to  corn  and  tillage. 
His  own  proper  and  original  area,  the  parts  to  the 
east  and  north  of  the  Caspian,  is  a  steppe,  fitted 
for  the  nomad,  but  unfitted  for  the  husbandman. 
Here,  and  here  only,  he  has  not  been  an  intruder 
and  a  conqueror.  Here,  and  here  only,  has  he 
been  without  a  subject  population  to  work  for 
him.  This  he  has  in  Europe,  this  he  has  in 
Bokhara,  this  he  has  in  Egypt ;  so  that  his  love 
for  looking-on  and  enjoying  the  labour  of  others 
is  what  he  shares  with  the  rest  of  the  world, 
whereas  his  preference  of  a  shepherd's  life  to  a 
cultivator's  is  a  habit  rather  than  instinct.  In  the 
few  parts  of  the  original  Turk  area,  where  the 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  favourable  to 
agriculture,  and  where  he  is  no  dominant  lord, 
but  only  an  ordinary  occupant,  the  Turk  is  as 
good  a  farmer  as  the  generality.  If  he  be  not  so 
in  Asia  Minor  it  is  due  to  the  insecurity  of  the 
fruits  of  his  industry.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Gurgan  (falling  into  the  Caspian 
from  the  east)  the  pre-eminently  Turk  branch  of 
the  Goklan  Turcomans  is  mainly  employed  upon 
agriculture  —  growing  grain  and  rearing  silk- 
worms. This,  it  may  be  said,  is  a  singular  instance. 
It  is  so  ;  but  where,  besides,  does  any  member  of 


226  TURK   STOCK. 

the  great  Turk  stock  come  under  the  conditions 
necessary  for  agricultural  industry — a  fit  soil  and 
climate,  combined  with  security  of  possession,  and 
the  absence  of  a  subject  and  inferior  class  ?  Like 
any  other  fact,  however  isolated,  it  sets  aside  the 
current  notion  of  the  unfitness  of  the  Turk  for 
regular  and  industrial  labour  ;  a  habitude,  which, 
like  so  many  other  points  of  ethnology,  is  con- 
nected with  external  circumstances  far  more  than 
blood,  pedigree,  or  race. 

The  intellectual  development  of  the  Turk  stock 
in  general  has  been  that  of  the  majority  of  the 
families  of  mankind — moderate,  or  less  than  mo- 
derate ;  for  invention  and  originality  are  the  ex- 
ceptions rather  than  the  rule.  And  here  they  are 
in  the  same  predicament  as  they  were  in  respect 
to  their  industry.  In  their  original  country  they 
are  far  removed  from  the  contact  of  any  literature 
or  science  better  than  their  own;  for  what  are 
the  models  for  the  Turk  of  Independent  Tartary? 
In  the  country  of  their  conquests  they  have  clever 
Greeks  and  Arabs  to  do  their  head-work  for 
them.  And  we  may  add  to  these  drawbacks,  the 
unfavourable  effects  of  their  creed.  The  lan- 
guage that  gave  them  the  Koran  can  give  them 
nothing  useful  for  the  Europe  of  the  nineteenth 
century  ;  whilst  the  Europe  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is,  in  their  eyes,  a  Europe  of  infidels. 

However  much  we   may  lament  the  bigotry, 


TURK   STOCK.  227 

ignorance,  and  sensuality  of  the  Osmanli,  he 
is  only  what  his  creed,  conquests,  and  other  un- 
fortunate conditions  make  him.  Of  the  hardy 
and  simple  families  of  the  world,  as  opposed  to 
the  effeminate  and  subtle,  he  belongs  to  the  most 
typical.  This  is  shown  in  his  history.  Of  the 
material  conquerors  of  the  world,  of  the  disturbers 
of  things  physical  by  physical  force,  the  Turks 
are  the  greatest :  since  what  they  have  won  has 
been  by  hardihood  of  will  and  strength  of  arm 
far  less  than  by  diplomacy  or  the  more  indirect 
effects  of  their  arts  and  literature — of  which,  in- 
deed, they  have  had  none.  But  because  they 
have  been  thus  material,  they  have  not  been  per- 
manent. Had  they  conquered,  like  the  ancient 
Romans,  Egypt  and  Barbary  and  Servia  and 
Persia  and  Hindostan  would  be  Turk,  giving  an 
area  greater  than  that  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  or 
the  Slavonians.  Still,  they  are  the  great  material 
conquerors  of  history. 

Yet  this  is  but  a  result  of  certain  physical  and 
geographical  conditions: — no  proof  of  any  spe- 
cific hardihood  of  nature.  It  is  no  fanciful 
imagination  to  say,  that  the  areas  of  the  great 
conquering  nations  of  the  world,  are  as  definitely 
bounded  by  certain  lines  of  latitude  as  are  those 
of  climate  ;  and  that  such  areas  give  us  zones  of 
conquest  and  subjugation  as  truly  as  the  Tem- 
perate or  the  Frigid  give  us  zones  of  climate. 


228  TURK   STOCK. 

There  are  a  'priori  reasons  for  this  ;  and  there  are 
proofs  of  it  in  every  ^age  of  history.  The  eiFects 
of  a  northern  latitude  are  to  stunt  the  population, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  Laplander  ;  those  of  the 
tropics  to  enervate.  Between  these  extremes  the 
peoples  that  are  at  once  hardy  and  well-grown 
strike,  as  with  a  two-edged  sword,  hoth  upwards 
and  downwards,  north  and  south.  The  Germans, 
Slavonians,  Turks,  and  Algonkins  verify  this. 
Sometimes  a  superior  civilization,  sometimes  un- 
developed energies,  referahle  to  some  new  influ- 
ences, counteract  this  natural  disposition  (one  of 
the  nearest  approaches  to  a  law  in  ethnology)  hut 
the  general  rule  is,  as  has  heen  stated, — apparent 
exceptions,  as  are  the  Romans  and  Arabians. 

The  Turks  pressed  forward  in  the  direction  of 
Europe,  even  as  the  Sarmatians  did  towards 
India,  earlier  than  they  have  the  credit  of  doing. 
The  Skoloti  have  been  already  considered.  But 
what  do  we  find  in  the  early  history  of  Asia 
Minor  ?  A  mountain  throughout  the  Turk  area 
is  Tagh  or  Dagh,  The  mountain  from  which  the 
10,000  Greeks  saw  the  sea  was  Thehh-es.  This, 
perhaps,  is  accidental.  But  who  dwelt  around  it? 
The  Skythini,  the  Anatolian  equivalents  to  the 
Russian  Skythae.  But  this  proves  too  much, 
since  Skythae  was  no  native  name,  but  one  of 
Sarmatian  origin,  and,  as  such,  indicative  of  Sar- 
matians in  the  parts  about.    Otherwise,  how  could 


THE    THRACIANS.  229 

it  be  used  ?  These  Sarmatians  cannot  be  demon- 
strated. Nevertheless,  the  name  in  the  Anabasis 
of  the  king  of  the  Paphlagonian  neighbours  of  the 
Scythini,  near  the  mountain  ThekJieSj  is  Korylas^ 
and  Krai  is  the  Lithuanic  for  king.  But  king  is  a 
common,  not  a  proper  name.  So  is  Zupan  (= 
chief,  lord,  or  superior)  in  the  present  Slavonic. 
Yet  Gibbon  speaks  of  Zupanus,  as  a  king  so- 
called,  by  certain  Slavonians  of  the  Middle  Da- 
nube. All  this  may  be  accidental.  Such  accidents, 
however,  are  stranger  than  the  facts  which  explain 
them  away. 

Ottomans,  Greeks,  Romans,  Goths,  and  Slavo- 
nians have  all  modified  the  original  blood  of 
Thrace ;  yet  the  present  blood  of  Ottoman  Ru- 
melia  is,  probably,  more  Thracian  than  aught  else, 
Thracian  on  the  mothers'  side. 

The  old  Thracian  affinities  are  difficult ;  but  not 
beyond  investigation.  A  series  of  statements  on 
the  part  of  good  classical  authors  tell  us,  that  the 
Daci  were  what  the  Getae  were,  and  the  Thracians 
what  the  Getae ;  also,  that  the  Phrygians  spoke 
the  same  language  as  the  Thracians,  and  the  Ar- 
menians as  the  Phrygians.  If  so,  either  the  an- 
cient language  of  Hungary  must  have  been  spoken 
as  far  as  the  Caspian,  or  the  ancient  Armenian  as 
far  as  the  Theiss.  Many  facts  are  against  this : 
indeed  the  evidence  must  be  dealt  with  by  attri- 
buting two  languages  to  Phrygia,  one  approach- 


230  THE   THRACIANS. 

ing  the  nearest  tongue  on  the  East,  which  would 
be  the  Armenian,  and  another  standing  in  the 
same  relation  to  the  Thracian,  on  the  west.  This 
distinction  being  drawn,  the  rest  is  probable. 

The  evidence  as  to  there  having  been  members 
of  the  Thracian  stock  on  both  sides  the  Helles- 
pont, is  not  limited  to  the  Phrygians  of  Mysia. 
The  Bithyni  and  others  are  in  the  same  category. 
Which  way  was  the  migration?  It  is  generally 
believed  to  have  been  from  Asia  to  Europe  ;  but 
the  deduction  of  the  Greeks  from  Italy,  and  that 
of  the  Sanskrit  language  from  Europe,  modifies 
this  view.  In  truth,  the  present  writer  reads  the 
whole  history  of  Thrace  backwards  ;  seeing  in  the 
majority  of  the  populations  akin  to  the  Thracians 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Hellespont  signs  of  Eu- 
ropean intrusion.  Signs,  too,  of  European  intru- 
sion he  sees  in  the  world-wide  tale  of  Troy ;  the 
historical  basis  of  the  great  Homeric  poems  being 
not  the  struggle  between  the  Greek  and  the  Asiatic, 
but  that  between  the  Greek  and  Thracian,  each 
fighting  for  a  footing  in  Asia  Minor.  Perhaps  the 
beginning  of  the  Greek  colonization  was  the  end 
of  the  Sarmatian;  for  the  ancient  Thracians  I 
believe  to  have  belonged  to  this  stock.  Like  the 
Lithuanians  of  the  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  they 
have  effected  their  share  of  achievements  in  India; 
their  conquests  having  been  Bacchic,  Thracian, 
and  Slavonic,  just  as  the  Cimmerian  inroads  were 


I 


THE   THRACIANS.  231 


Lithuanic.  So  that  there  was  a  double  origin 
to  the  so-called  Indo-Europeans  of  Hindostan  and 
Persia ;  a  trace  of  which  may  possibly , — I  do  not 
say  probably — exists  at  the  present  moment  in 
the  name  Jat.^ 

Between  the  original  Thracian  basis  and  the 

*  I  may  reasonably  be  charged  with  finding  the  name  Goth 
in  everything,  in  Geta,  Gothi,  Gothones,  Gothini,  Juta,  Vita, 
and  Jats.  But  as  I  care  far  more  for  processes  than  results  a 
somewhat  sharp  self-examination  acquits  me.  Starting  with 
the  doctrine  that  nothing  is  to  be  considered  accidental  which 
we  can  reasonably  investigate,  I  only  demur  to  those  conclu- 
sions which  are  incompatible  with  undoubted  facts.  Is  this 
the  case  with  any  of  the  deductions  hitherto  laid  before  the 
reader  ?  First  let  us  look  to  them  in  respect  to  the  facts  they 
assume.  Of  these  the  most  startling  is  the  presence  of  Li- 
thuanians in  the  Vithesleth  and  in  India.  Yet,  if  the  oldest 
occupants  of  the  Danish  Islands  were  not  Germans,  what 
were  they  likelier  to  have  been  than  Lithuanians,  considering 
that  Prussia  was  Lithuanic  ?  "  Slavonians,"  it  may  be  an- 
swered. Granted  ;  but  the  Slavonic  character  of  the  Vithes- 
leth is  as  much  opposed  to  current  notions  as  the  Lithuanic. 
Besides  which,  the  difference  is  only  one  of  detail.  Then,  as 
to  the  Lithuanian  elements  in  India.  If  we  hesitate  to  deduce 
these  from  Europe,  we  must  deduce  the  Indian  elements  in 
Lithuania  from  Asia.  There  is  a  difficulty  either  way.  Then, 
as  to  the  changes  in  the  form  of  the  word.     Take  the  two 

extremest  forms,  Goth-,  and  Vit-.  Is  this  change  legiti- 
mate ]  The  answer  to  this  lies  in  the  fact  of  the  Russian 
form  for  Master  being  Gosp-odar,  whereas  the  Lithuanic  is 

Fisp-ati. 
Since  the  chapter  on  the  ethnology  of  Scandinavia  was 


232 


MACEDONIANS. 


present  dominant  population  of  Osmanlis,  there 
have  been  the  following  elements  of  intermix- 
ture ;  Pelasgic  (whatever  that  was),  Semitic,  Hel- 
lenic, Roman,  Gothic,  Slavonic,  and  Bulgarian. 

So  far  as  the  Macedonians  were  other  than  Hel- 
lenic, they  were  either  Skipetar  or  Slavonian,  i.e., 
in  the  category  of  the  ancient  Albanians,  or  in  the 
category  of  the  ancient  Thracians ;  or  they  may 
have  been  mixed  in  some  unascertained  manner. 
Even  if  we  suppose  them  to  have  pressed  south- 
wards and  eastwards  from  the  head-waters  of  the 
Axius,  and  from  the  southern  boundary  of  Servia, 
a  place  for  them  in  the  same  great  class  with  the 
Thracians  is  admissible ;  and,  in  all  probability, 
southern  Servia  was  their  original  locality.     That 
they,  too,  pressed  forwards  in  Asia  is  likely.    That 
words  so  radically  alike  as  Mygdon-es  and  Ma- 
cedon-es,  are  wholly  unconnected,  and  that  they 
resemble  each  other  by  accident,  is  what  I  am 
slow  to  believe ;  but  that  the  line  of  demarcation 

printed,  Mr.  Worsaae  has  made  me  acquainted  with  a  re- 
markable fact  connected  with  the  Isle  of  Laaland,  confirmatory 
of  the  belief  of  a  Sarmatian  population  partially,  at  least,  in 
the  Vithesleth.  In  the  southern  part  of  the  island  some  of 
the  geographical  terms  are  Slavonic,  and  in  Saxo  there  is  the 
statement,  that  when  the  other  Danes  prepared  an  invasion 
against  their  Wend,  or  Slavonic,  enemies,  of  the  continent,  the 
Laalanders  were  neither  allowed  to  take  a  part  in  them,  nor 
yet  informed  of  their  being  in  contemplation  ;  for  fear  lest 
they  should  communicate  the  news  to  the  W^ent^  (Slavonians). 


PELASGI  OF  MACEDONIA.  233 

between  the  Thracians  and  Macedonians  is  broad 
and  trenchant  for  members  of  the  same  stock,  is 
likely,  since  each  was  an  encroaching  population, 
and,  as  such,  a  population  which  obliterated  tran- 
sitional and  intermediate  varieties. 

It  is  well  known  that  of  the  three  localities  of 
the  Pelasgian  stock,  known  under  that  name  with- 
in the  period  of  authentic  history,  two  are  in 
Macedonia :  one  of  these  we  get  from  Herodotus, 
the  other  from  Thucydides. 

1 .  Herodotus  mentions  the  Pelasgi  of  Khreston 
— above  the  Tyrsenians. 

2.  Thucydides,  those  of  Cleonae,  Dium,  and 
Olophyxus  on  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Athos. 

The  Pelasgi  of  the  third  locality,  the  Asiatic 
Pelasgi,  or  the  Herodotean  Pelasgi  of  the  parts 
about  Piakia  and  Skylake,  near  Cyzicus,  may 
reasonably  be  considered  as  settlers  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin,  both  from  the  general  pheno- 
mena of  ethnological  distribution,  and  the  most 
scientific  interpretation  of  the  few  data  we  possess 
for  the  ancient  ethnology  of  Asia  Minor. 

But  the  Pelasgi  of  Chreston  and  Mount  Athos, 
are  in  localities  wherein  they  may  as  easily  be 
aboriginal  as  intrusive.  Which  were  they  ?  I 
cannot  make  up  my  mind  ;  I  can  only  exhaust 
the  two  alternatives.  If  aboriginal,  they  were  one 
of  three  things,  Skipetar,  Slavonic,  or  members 
of  an  extinct  stock ;  if  intrusive,  members  of  some 


234  THE  PELASGI. 


extinct  stock,  Asiatic  or  Italian.     How  they  may 
have  been,  this  is  easily  understood. 

1.  An  eastern  extension  of  the  oldest  Skipetar 
area  would  carry  a  population  akin  to  the  an- 
cestors of  the  present  Albanians  as  far  as  the 
^gean, 

^.  A  southern  extension  of  the  Thracian  area 
would  carry  the  ancient  Thracian  stock  as  far  as 
Thessaly. 

3.  Semitic,  or  other  Asiatic  colonies,  would 
give  us  a  series  of  maritime  settlements. 

^  4.  So  would  a  series  of  very  early  Italian  colo- 
nizations. These  we  may  deduce  from  some  part 
of  Italy,  different  from  the  mother-country  of  the 
true  Hellenic  Greeks ;  and  we  may,  also,  assume 
a  difference  in  the  date  of  the  movement.  In 
such  a  case  the  Pelasgi  may  have  been  Hellenic, 
as  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  Scandinavian ;  in  other 
words,  out  of  two  Italian  colonizations  one  (the 
Pelasgic)  may  have  been  the  analogue  to  the 
Angle,  the  other  (the  Hellenic)  to  the  Danish  in- 
vasion of  Britain. 

Of  these  alternatives  I  prefer  the  second  and 
fourth  to  the  first  and  third. 

The  name  itself  seems  to  have  been  applied  to 
one  stock  only,  not  to  several— though  the  evi- 
dence of  this  is  by  no  means  conclusive. 

It  seems  not  to  have  been  native.  Native  names 
are,  usually,  more  specific  and  less  general.    It  was 


THE   PELASGI.  235 

[a  name  which  a  gave  to  b,  not  one  which  b  gave 
5elf. 

It  seems  to  have   been   originally  other  than 
[Greek. 

With  a  strong  inclination  to  see  in  the  CEno- 
ian  conquest  of  Greece  a  third  rather  a  second 
feam  of  population,  and  with  the  belief  that 
le  earliest  displacement  of  the  original  Skipe- 
population  was  effected  by  movements  from 
'brace  and  Macedon  (by  members  of  the  great 
■Slavonic  stock),  the  Greek  occupancy  being  later 
I  than  this ;  favouring,  too,  the  idea  that  the  Pelasgi 
of  Macedon  were,  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
indigenous  to  .the  soil,  and  members  of  the 
same  stock  as  the  Thracians  (the  stock  being  the 
Slavonic) ;  I  am  opposed  to  the  broad  line  of  de- 
marcation which  so  many  recent  authors  have 
drawn  between  the  Hellenic  civilization  and  the 
Thracian,  a  line  of  demarcation  which  has  led 
them,  in  many  cases,  to  explain  away  rather  than 
admit  the  evidence  of  several  good  writers  of 
antiquity,  as  to  the  influence  of  the  Thracian 
music  and  the  Thracian  poetry  on  early  Greece. 
To  claim  for  the  Homeric  poems  the  same 
amount  of  Thracian  elements  that  the  Welshman 
claims  for  those  of  the  cycle  of  Eang  Arthur, 
would  be  to  illustrate  the  ohscurum  per  obscurius, 
inasmuch  as  the  Welshman's  claim  is  of  a  some- 
what impalpable  nature.     It  cannot  attach  to  the 


236  THE   PELASGI. 

poems  themselves,  in  any  known  form.  They  are 
all  in  Norman-French,  or  German,  or  English,  or 
Italian— none  in  Welsh.  Neither  are  they  trans- 
lations of  a  Welsh  original  now  lost.  Neither  is 
their  subject-matter  Welsh  to  the  amount  of 
one-third.  Yet,  the  germ  of  the  fiction  is,  in 
some  way  or  other,  Welsh,  and  the  claim  of  the 
Welshman  is,  up  to  a  certain  point,  valid. 

Mutatis  mutandis,  let  us  ask  whether  the 
Trojan  cycle  may  not,  in  the  same  sense,  be 
Slavonic — assuming  the  Thracians  to  have  be- 
longed to  that  stock  ? 

I.  «.  When  we  find  the  name  of  a  non -historical 
person  coincide  with  that  of  an  historical  people 
or  an  historical  locality,  it  is  a  fair  inference,  all 
the  world  over,  to  consider  that  form  as  an  ep6- 
nymus, 

b.  It  is  also  fair  to  connect  such  legends  as  at- 
tach to  the  name  with  the  people  or  the  locality. 

c.  Now  several  names  in  the  early  Greek  epic 
cycles  are  thus  eponymic  —  thus  localized  in 
Thracian  and  other  similar  localities  —  Teucer, 
^neas,  Dardanus,  &c. 

II.  Again — the  national  poetry  of  the  existing 
Slavonic  nations,  more  nearly  approaches — longo 
intervallo,  I  admit— that  of  the  Homeric  Greeks 
than  does  that  of  any  other  families  of  majikind. 

III.  The  metres  do  the  same. 

IV.  The  Sanskrit  metres  are  in  the  same  cate- 


BOSNIA,    BULGARIA.  237 

gory  with  the  Slavonic  ;  so  that — the  European 
origin  of  the  Sanskrit  heing  admitted — the  simi- 
larity must  be  of  great  antiquity. 

These  points  cannot  be  enlarged  on.  They 
form,  however,  the  basis  of  some  claim  for  the 
existence  of  Slavonic  elements  in  the  old  heroic 
poetry  of  Greece  ;  which  —  it  must  be  remem- 
bered—  originated  on  the  Hellene -Slavonic  de- 
batable land  of  ^olic  Asia. 

The  propounder  of  an  hypothesis  has  no  right 
to  lay  down,  peremptorily,  the  laws  by  which  his 
doctrine  is  to  be  tested.  At  the  same  time,  he 
may  fairly  claim  that  the  objections  to  it  should 
rest  on  the  same  broad  grounds  on  which  it  is 
based.  The  Homeric  poems  are  Greek;  and 
the  Orlando  Furioso  is  Italian.  Yet  there  are 
Welsh  and  other  non- Italian  elements  in  the 
latter,  and,  it  is  submitted,  that  there  are  Slavonic 
and  non-Hellenic  elements  in  the  former.  Their 
amount  I  do  not  profess  to  measure. 

Bosnia,  Herzegovna,  Turkish  Croatia,  —  Sla- 
vonic in  speech,  and  Slavonic  in  blood,  the  Bos- 
nians and  Herzegovnians  differ  from  the  Servians 
only  in  a  few  details — the  chief  being  their  Ma- 
hometan creed.  Equally  slight  is  the  difference 
between  the  Turkish  and  Austrian  Croatians. 

Bulgaria  is  Slavonic  and  Rumanyo  in  speech, 
Moesian,  Gothic,  Turk,  and  Slavonic  in  blood. 


238 


CHAPTER  XI. 

AUSTRIA. BUKHOVINIA,    GALLICIA,    AND    LODOMIRIA. —  BOHEMIA 

AND  MORAVIA. — AUSTRIAN  SILESIA. — DALMATIA.^ — CROATIA. — 

CARNIOLA. CARINTHIA.  —  STYRIA. SALTZBURG,    THE    TYROL, 

THE  VORARLBERG. — UPPER   AND    LOWER  AUSTRIA. — HUNGARY. 

BuJchovinia.  —  Bukhovinia  was  part  of  the 
ancient  Dacia,  and  the  bulk  of  the  population  is, 
consequently,  Rumanyo. 

A  smaller  portion  is  common  to  Bukhovinia 
and  Gallicia,  and  this  is  chiefly  Russniak,  but 
partly  Pole. 

Gallicia  and  Lodomiria. — At  present  these  are 
Russniak  areas  encroached  upon  by  Poles  and 
Germans:  indeed,  it  was  from  Gallicia,  Lodo- 
miria, and  Bukhovinia,  that  the  Malorussians 
seem  to  have  originated,  and  Russia  to  have  been 
conquered. 

Gallicia,  however,  at  one  time  seems  to  have 
been  occupied,  more  or  less  partially,  by  the  most 
south-western  members  of  the  Lithuanic  family — 
the  Gothini  of  Tacitus,  whose  language  is  stated 
to  have  been  Gallic.  I  have  suggested,  elsewhere, 
the  likehood  of  this  meaning  Gallician  —  there 


BOHEMIA.  ^^3y 

being  no  reason  to  look  upon  that  name  as  one 
of  recent  origin.  More  than  this,  without  deny- 
ing the  existence  of  true  Gauls  on  those  several 
portions  of  the  water-system  of  the  middle  Da- 
nube where  they  are  placed  by  ancient  writers 
under  the  name  of  Galatce,  I  am  inclined  to  be- 
lieve that  they  were  rather  Gallician  and  Gallic, 
For  Gallicia  to  have  been  Lithuanic,  Yolhynia 
1  must  have  been  Lithuanic  *  also,  unless  we  sup- 
pose the  Gothini  to  have  been  an  isolated  settle- 
ment ;  which,  perhaps,  they  were. 

Bohemia. — Whatever  may  be  the  inferences 
from  the  fact  of  Bohemia  having  been  politically 
connected  with  the  empire  of  the  Germanic  Mar- 
comanni,  whatever  may  be  those  from  the  element 
Boio-,  as  connecting  its  population  with  the  Boii 
of  Gaul  and  Bavaria  {Baiovarii),  the  doctrine  that 
the  present  Slavonic  population  of  that  kingdom 
— Tshekhs  as  they  call  themselves — is  either  re- 
cent in  origin  or  secondary  to  any  German  or 
Keltic  aborigines,  is  wholly  unsupported  by  his- 
tory. In  other  words,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
historical  period  Bohemia  was  as  Slavonic  as  it  is 
now. 

From  A.D.  52Q  to  a.d.  550,  Bohemia  belonged 
to  the  great  Thuringian  empire.    The  notion  that 
it  was  then  Germanic  (except  in  its  political  rela- 
tions) is  gratuitous.      Nevertheless,   Schaifarik's 
*  See  p.  172. 


240  BOHEMIA. 

account  is,  that  the  ancestors  of  the  present 
Tshekhs  came,  probably ^  from  White  Croatia: 
which  was  either  north  of  the  Carpathians,  or  on 
each  side  of  them.  According  to  other  writers, 
however,  the  parts  ahove  the  river  Kulpa  in  Croa- 
tia sent  them  forth.  In  Bohemian  the  verb  ceti=. 
to  begin,  from  which  Dobrowsky  derives  the  name 
Czekh=the  beginners,  the  foremost,  i.e,  the  first 
Slavonians  who  passed  westwards.  The  power- 
ful Samo,  the  just  Krok,  and  his  daughter,  the 
wise  Libussa,  the  founder  of  Prague,  begin  the 
uncertain  list  of  Bohemian  kings,  a.d.  624 — 700. 
About  A.D.  722,  a  number  of  petty  chiefs  become 
united  under  P'remysl,  the  husband  of  Libussa. 
Under  his  son  Nezamysl,  occurs  the  first  Consti- 
tutional Assembly  at  Wysegrad  ;  and  in  a.d.  845, 
Christianity  was  introduced.  But  it  took  no  sure 
footing  till  about  a.d.  966.  Till  a.d.  1471,  the 
names  of  the  Bohemian  kings  and  heroes  are 
Tshekh — Wenceslaus,  Ottokar,  Ziska,  Podiebrad. 
In  A.D.  1564,  the  Austrian  connexion  and  the 
process  of  Germanizing  began. 

Now,  in  considering  the  heroic  age  of  Tshekh 
literature,  Schaffarik  himself,  though  firmly  hold- 
ing the  doctrine  of  a  previous  Germanic  popula- 
tion, remarks,  that  "  there  is  no  trace  of  any 
remnant  of  the  German  spirit  having  survived  in 
Bohemia.  The  remains  of  such  Germanic  popu-  j 
lation  as   there  were,    must   have  been  a  weak 


DALMATIA.  241 

remnant,  and  soon  have  become  lost  in  the  Sla- 

mic  nationahty.    Even  the  stronger  most  pro- 

ibly  withdrew  to  the  lonely  hills." 

Moravia. — The  history  and  ethnology  of  Mo- 
Lvia  is  nearly  that  of  Bohemia,  except  that 
Marcomannic  Germans,  the  Turks,  Huns, 
lAvars,  and  other  less  important  populations  may 
have  effected  a  greater  amount  of  intermix- 
ture. Both  populations  are  Tshekh,  speaking  the 
|.Tshekh  language — the  language,  probably,  of  the 

icient  Quadi. 

Austrian  Silesia. — The  basis  of  the  population 
IS  Sorabian,  i.e.  akin  to  the  Srbie,  and  Serskie 
of  Lusatia.  Like  Gallicia,  however,  it  has  be- 
^come  Polish  in  language  wherever  it  is  not 
German. 

Dahnatia. — The  bulk  of  the  present  popula- 
tion is  Slavonic,  closely  allied  to  the  Servians, 
Bosnians,  Herzegovnians,  and  Montenegriners. 
The  foreign, elements,  however,  are  considerable. 

First  came  the  Roman  conquest ;  then  the 
Avar ;  then  Germanic,  then  Arab,  and  then  Ve- 
netian influences.  Besides  this  there  were  Mon- 
gol inroads,  and  an  absolute  conquest  of  the 
neighbouring  countries  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovna 
by  the  Turks. 

In  Dalmatia  we  have  a  Slavonic  population 
addicted  to  maritime  habits.  The  Liburnians 
of  old,  the  Narentines,  the  Uskoks,  the  Almis- 


242  HUNGARY. 

sans  during  the  contests  between  Venice  and  the 
Turks  are  prominent  in  the  history  of  piracy. 
On  the  other  hand  the  history  of  more  than 
one  Republic — Ragusa,  PogHzza — shows  that  the 
Dalmatian  temper  has  not  been  dead  to  the 
spirit  of  political  liberty. 

Croatia  is  Slavonic  nearly  as  Servia  and  Bosnia 
are  Slavonic.  The  Croatian  dialect,  without  the 
two  being  mutually  unintelligible,  differs  from 
the  so-called  lUyrian  of  the  Vinds,  Slovenians,  or 
Slovenzi  of — 

Istria,  Carniola,  Carinthia,  and  Styria,  all 
truly  Slavonic  districts,  though,  of  course,  par- 
tially occupied  by  an  encroaching  population  of 
Germans  on  the  northern,  and  of  Italians  on  the 
southern  frontier. 

Salzburg,  the  northern  half  of  the  Tyrol,  and 
the  Vorarlherg  I  believe  to  have  been  originally 
as  Slavonic  as  Carinthia,  and  also  that  they  are 
at  the  present  moment  Slavonic  in  blood,  though 
German  in  language. 

Upper  and  Lower  Austria  I  believe  to  have 
been  in  the  same  predicament. 

The  southern  half  of  the  Tyrol  had  its  affinities 
with  the  south  rather  than  the  north,  and  was 
originally,  in  part  at  least,  Etruscan.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  it  by  no  means  follows  that 
because  it  was  Etruscan  it  was  necessarily  other 
than  Slavonic. 


THE  MAJIARS.  243 

Hungary, — The  complex  ethnology  of  Hun- 
gary now  remains  for  consideration. 

The  Banat  is  a  mixture  of  recently  intro- 
duced populations  in  the  way  of  colonization. 

Transylvania  is  German,  Rumanyo  and  Sekler, 
a  term  which  will  be  noticed  hereafter. 

The  central  parts  only  are  Majiar — Majiar 
meaning  the  population  which  speaks  the  Majiar 
language,  which  originated  in  Asia,  and  which  in 
the  tenth  century  effected  intrusions  and  conquests 
in  Hungary,  just  as  the  Osmanlis  did  in  Rumelia. 
The  details  of  the  Majiar  movements  from  the 
Ural  Mountains  to  the  Danube  are  obscure.  They 
are  said,  however,  to  have  been  driven  from  their 
own  locality  by  the  Petschenagi.  They  are  also 
mentioned  as  having  taken  that  part  of  Russia 
which  is  called  Susdal,  in  their  way. 

Seven  was  the  number  of  the  names  of  their 
patriarchs,  who  where  Almus,  the  father  of 
Arpad,  Eleud  of  Zobolsu,  Cundu  of  Curzan, 
Ound  of  Ete,*  Tosu  of  Lelu,  Huba  of  Zemera, 
Tahut  of  Horca;  but  the  tribes,  clans,  or  ge- 
nerations were  far  more  numerous.  In  one  of 
the  traditions  they  amount  to  one  hundred  and 
eight.  In  the  genealogies  themselves  we  can 
trace  more  than  one  family  to  a  single  patriarch, 
since  the  tribes  of  Calan  and  Consoy  are  derived 
from  Ete,  the  son  of  Ound.  In  these  divisions 
*  Or  Heten.—See  p.  248. 


244  THE   MAJIARS. 

and  subdivisions  we  see  a  far  greater  resemblance 
to  an  Asiatic  than  to  a  European  state  of  society  ; 
indeed,  we  may  easily  imagine  that  it  is  Turks  or 
Mongols  that  we  are  reading  of. 

I  cannot  find  that  they  came  to  Europe  accom- 
panied by  their  wives  and  daughters.  Their 
march  was  rapid,  since  it  was  game  and  fish  that 
they  subsisted  on  rather  than  on  the  produce  of 
agriculture.  "Every  day  they  hunted,  so  that 
the  Hungarians  are  skilful  above  other  nations  in 
the  chase.  By  hunting  and  fishing  they  got  their 
daily  food." 

They  are  described  as  a  people  of  excessive 
rudeness  and  cruelty.  "  The  nation  of  the  Hun- 
garians, fiercer  th^n  any  brute  beast,  killed  but 
few  with  the  sword,  though  many  thousands  with 
their  arrows.  These  they  shot  from  bows  of  horn 
with  such  skill  that  their  blows  could  not  be 
guarded  against  %.  This  mode  of  fighting  was 
dangerous  in  proportion  as  it  was  novel.  It  was 
like  that  of  the  Britons,  except  that  where  the 
one  used  darts  the  other  used  arrows." 

The  Majiars  were  darker-skinned  than  the 
Turks :  such,  at  least,  is  the  plain  interpretation 
of  the  epithet  black,  which  is  applied  to  them  by 
Nestor;  who  calls  them  the  black  Vgri  {Ugri 
czerni)  in  contradistinction  to  the  white  Ugri 
( Ugri  bjeli),  by  which  he  is  supposed  to  mean 
the  Khazars. 


THE   MAJIAES.  245 

From  about  a.d.  889  to  a.d.  955,  the  Majiars 
rere  the  scourge  of  the  countries  along  the 
Danube ;  and  in  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Thuringia, 
^ranconia,  Hesse,  Alsatia,  and  even  France,  they 
[fought  battles  with  various  success — at  first  as 
conquerors.  Afterwards,  however,  the  tide  of 
success  turned  against  them,  and  a  signal  victory 
'near  Merseburg,  in  a.d.  934,  first  broke  their 
^power,  which  was  afterwards  limited  to  their 
present  area  by  a  more  decisive  victory  on  the 
Lech  in  a.d.  955. 

I  have  remarked  upon  the  extent  to  which  the 
division  of  the  Majiars  into  tribes,  families,  clans, 
or  generations,  has  a  Turk  or  Mongol  look ; 
and  I  now  add  that  it  is  possible  that  it  may 
actually  be  so.  There  are  numerous  proofs  of 
the  presence  of  Turk  tribes  in  Hungary  — 
the  three  most  important  of  which  are — 1.  The 
Avars;  2.  The  Petschenagi;  and  3.  The  Ku- 
manians. 

This  is  no  more  than  we  expect :  since  there 
were  not  only  the  descendai^s  of  the  Huns  of 
Attila  settled  in  the  country,  but  several  sepa- 
rate subsequent  invasions  from  the  east  had 
occurred  in  the  interval. 

1.  The  Avars,  for  more  than  three  centuries 
after  the  death  of  Attila,  continued  to  be  the 
chief  population  of  Pannonia ;  a  population  en- 
gaged in  perpetual  wars  with  their  neighbours  in 


246  THE   AVARS. 

Croatia,  Moravia,  and  Transylvania,  and,  fre- 
quently, extending  their  invasions  to  Bohemia, 
Germany,  and  even  France.  Whether  they  v^ere 
the  absolute  descendants  of  the  Huns  of  Attila, 
under  a  new  name,  or  not,  is  unimportant;  since, 
if  they  were  not  Huns  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  they  were  a  very  closely  allied  population. 
I  think  they  formed  the  bulk  of  the  Pannonians 
during  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  cen- 
turies. But,  as  the  strength  of  the  Slavonians 
of  Moravia,  Upper  Hungary,  Croatia  and  Servia 
increased,  the  power  of  the  Avars  waned,  and, 
weakened  as  they  were  at  the  time  of  the  Majiar 
invasion,  they  lost  their  language  and  nationality 
and  name  soon  after  that  event*  Till  then,  how- 
ever, they  had  a  separate  existence,  though  re- 
duced in  importance.  In  the  time  of  Nestor  the 
extinction  of  the  Avars,  whom  the  Russians  call 
Ohri,  was  indicated  by  the  following  bye-word, — 
"  they  are  gone  even  as  the  Ohri ;  neither  kith 
nor  kin  remains."  Whether  they  were  most 
amalgamated  with  the  Slavonians  or  the  Majiars  is 
doubtful.  Such  Hun  blood  as  runs  in  the  veins 
of  the  present  Hungarians  is  referable  to  the 
Avars ;  at  least  it  is  certain  that  unless  we  sup- 
posed the  Huns  of  Attila  to  have  remained  in 
Hungary  (Pannonia)  under  the  name  of  Avar, 
we  cannot  well  trace  their  continued  existence  in 
that  country ;  besides  which  the  words  Hun  and 


RUMANIANS.  247 

tvar,  are  frequently  used  as  synonymous — '^  Huni 
qui  et  Avares  dicuntur." 

2.  The  Petschenagi,  a  branch  of  the  great  Turk 
[family,  were,  even  in  Asia,  the  nearest  neighbours 

of  the  ancestors  of  the  Majiars  ;  their  locality 
being  the  parts  between  the  Jaik  and  the  Uralian 
Mountains.  Their  invasion  of  Russia  is  placed 
by  Nestor  in  a.d.  915;  their  settlements  being 
the  parts  between  the  Lower  Dnieper  and  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube.  We  find  them  in  Hun- 
gary under  the  name  of  Bisseni, 

3.  The  Kumanians  appear  in  Europe  rather 
later  than  the  Petschenagi  and  Majiars,  i,e,,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  eleventh  century.  Yolhynia 
is  the  country  where  they  more  especially  settled. 
Like  the  Petschenagi  they  w^ere  Turk,  but  not 
Mahometan.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  described 
as  unclean  Pagans,  who  ate  all  sorts  of  meat,  and 
some  of  it  raw. 

4.  The  fourth  section  of  the  Turk  stock 
which  made  settlements  in  Hungary  were  the 
Khazars,  I  should  not,  however,  like  to  as- 
sert positively  that  they  were  not  Avars  under 
another  name,  or,  at  any  rate,  a  closely  allied  po- 
pulation. 

5.  The  fifth  were  the  Bulgarians.  Without 
fixing  the  date  of  their  advent,  we  may  safely 
assume  that  it  was  subsequent  to  the  conversion 
of  some  portion  of  the  nation  to  Mahometanism, 


248  BULGARIANS,    BASHKIRS. 

although  previous  to  their  adoption  of  the  Slavonic 
language. 

But  the  remarkable  fact  is  the  name  of  one  of 
their  leaders  Heten,^  a  name  which  we  see  in  the 
list  of  the  proper  Majiar  patriarchs.  This  con- 
firms the  notion  that  the  division  into  tribes  and 
sub-tribes  may  have  been  less  Majiar  and  more 
Turk  than  it  seems  to  be. 

The  Bashkirs  of  Hungary  are  a  difficult  popu- 
lation. In  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Arabian 
writer  Jakut,  writes  that  he  found  in  the  city  of 
Aleppo  some  florid-faced  Mahometans,  who  were 
called  Bashkirs,  and  came  from  Hungary. 

Now,  the  present  Bashkirs  are  the  occupants 
of  those  parts  beyond  the  Uralian  Mountains 
from  which  the  Majiars  came  :  their  language 
being  Turk.  But,  as  there  is  satisfactory  evi- 
dence that  this  is  an  adopted  tongue,  and  that 
their  original  speech  was  Ugrian,  they  are  rea- 
sonably supposed  to  represent  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  not  the  Majiars  of  Hungary,  but  the 
Majiars  of  the  mother-country  from  which  the 
invaders  of  Europe  proceeded.  If  so,  how  came 
they  to  be  Mahometans  ?  Were  they  not  rather 
the  Bulgarians  last  mentioned  ?  Their  florid 
complexion  is  the  chief  fact  against  it.  On  the 
other  hand, it  must  be  remarked  that  though 
Jakut  says  that  they  were  called  Bashkirs  ("  au- 
*  Or  £^e.— See  p.  243. 


BASHKIRS. 


249 


H  diebant  Baschgardi ")  he  does  not  say  that  they 
called  themselves  so.  Again,  the  number  of  their 
chiefs  is  seven — the  number  of  the  so-called  Ma- 
jiar  patriarchs ;  amongst  whom  it  must  remem- 
bered we  find  the  Bulgarian  Heten. 

Hence,  of  a  Bashkir  intermixture,  separate 
from  the  Bulgarians  on  one  side,  and  the  Majiars 
on  the  other,  there  is  no  satisfactory  evidence. 

The  analysis  as  far  as  it  has  proceeded  has 
given  us — 

1.  Ugrians Majiars. 

2.  Turks a.  Huns. 

„      b,  Avars. 

„      c.  Petschenagi. 

„      d.  Kumanians. 

„      e.  Khazars. 

„       f.  Bulgarians, 

»       a.  Pagan, 

„      ^.  Mahometan. 

The  Majiar  conquest  converted  a  Turk  into  a 
Ugrian  area :  its  date  being  the  tenth  century. 

The  Hun  conquest  converted  a  semi-romanized 
into  a  Turk  area ;  its  date  being  the  fifth  century. 
A.D.  444  is  a  convenient  epoch  for  this  event. 
It  was  the  year  of  the  murder  of  Attila's  brother, 
and  the  sole  supremacy  of  Attila  himself. 

We  will  first  ask  how  Attila  left  Hungary  : 
next  how  he  found  it. 

I  am  not  at  all  satisfied  with  the  reasons  ge- 
nerally given  for  believing  that,  as  his  power  fell 


250  THE    HUNS. 

to  pieces  at  his  death,  so  did  the  Hun  blood  in 
Hungary  become  extinct.  Still  less  am  I  satis- 
fied with  the  reasons  which  give  any  particular 
nation  the  credit  of  having  destroyed  it.  The 
recovery  of  the  province  of  Palmonia  never  took 
place.  I  cannot  find  that  either  the  Goths  of  the 
Lower,  or  the  Germans  of  the  Upper,  Danube 
made  any  permanent  conquest.  That  the  Sla- 
vonic tribes  of  the  surrounding  frontier  pressed 
towards  the  interior  is  certain ;  but  it  is  not  cer- 
tain that  they  ever  made  the  country  their  own. 

That  the  political  power  of  the  descendants  of 
Attila  was  broken  is  certain ;  and  for  that  very 
reason,  I  believe  that  the  ethnological  influence 
of  the  Huns  remained.  The  son  of  Attila  was 
not  the  king  of  the  Huns^  because  Hun  seems  to 
have  been  a  collective  name,  and,  perhaps,  was 
not  a  native  one.  But  he  was  king  of  several  of 
the  populations  in  detail,  of  which,  along  with 
others,  the  Hun  power  was  made.  The  tribes 
most  ready  to  avail  themselves  of  the  death  of 
Attila  were  the  Goths  of  the  Lower  Danube — 
Bulgaria,  and  (perhaps)  Servia.  Now  these  first 
attacked  the  Setagce  of  Lower  Pannonia ;  and 
when  Dinzic,  the  son  of  Attila  knew  of  it  he 
opposed  them  with  the  few  tribes  that  still  acknow- 
ledged his  dominion,  the  Ultzinzures,  the  An- 
gesuri,  the  BiUigures,  and  the  Bardones,  All 
these  were  particular  Hun  populations,  who,  as 


THE  HUNS. 


251 


long  as  the  Hun  power  was  at  work  on  a  large 
scale  were  merged  in  one  general  name,  but  who 
afterwards  step  forth  as  separate  substantive  mem- 
bers of  that  great  confederacy,  or  empire. 

Still  there  was  great  encroachment ;  the  in- 
vading populations  of  the  Avars  and  the  Bul- 
garians— so  far  as  they  were  not  Huns — being 
like  the  Ultzinzures,  &c.  of  Turk  blood. 

Before  the  remains  of  the  Huns  of  Attila  were 
extinguished — probably  before  they  were  notably 
diminished — the  closely  allied  Avars  (Huns,  per- 
haps, under  another  name)  conquered  Pannonia, 
and  held  it  from  the  end  of  the  sixth  to  that 
of  the  eighth  century. 

What  with  the  remains  of  Attila's  army,  and 
what  with  the  Avars  and  the  Bulgarians,  I  think 
that  when  the  Majiars  entered  Hungary  they 
found  it,  at  least,  as  much  Turk  as  aught  else, 
^. — as  much,  but  not  more ;  for  the  history  of 
Hungary  between  the  Hun  and  the  Majiar  con- 
quests seems  to  have  been  as  follows  : — 

a.  There  was  some  reaction  on  the  part  of  the 
Romans,  assisted  by — 

b.  The  Goths,  and  perhaps  by — 

c.  The  remains  of  the  native  population  of  the 
frontiers. 

The  GepidcB,  too,  were  amongst  the  subjects  of 
Attila.  After  his  death  they  rebelled  against"  his 
son.     Between  the  Danube,  the  Theiss,  and  the 


252  '      THE  GEPIDiE. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  their  power  grew  steadily 
until  the  rise  of  the  Avars  and  Lombards;  the 
union  of  which  two  nations  was  too  strong  for 
them.  By  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  centur} 
their  national  existence  had  ceased. 

I  cannot  say  to  what  stock  the  Gepidae  be- 
longed.    I  think  they  were  Slavonians. 

Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  their  power  seems 
to  have  been  in  the  inverse  ratio  to  that  of  the 
Avars,  and  they  must  be  admitted  as  an  element 
in  the  ethnology  of  Hungary,  without  being  sup- 
posed to  be  a  very  important  one. 

We  may  well,  then,  say  that  no  European  po- 
pulation is  more  heterogeneous  than  that  of  Hun- 
gary. 

a.  In  the  countries  of  Saala  and  Eisenberg  we 
have  a  simple  extension  of  the  Carinthians. 

6.  In  Upper  Hungary  the  Slovaks. 

c.  On  the  Croatian  frontier,  Croatians — to  say 
nothing  about  the  political  union  of  the  two  king- 
doms. 

d.  In  Slavonia,  Servians  and  Russians  —  a 
variety  of  the  Servian  section. 

e.  The  Banat  has  already  been  noticed.  So 
has — 

/.  Transylvania.  The  non-Majiar  populations 
of  all  these  districts  are  separated  from  the  Majiars 
by  the  outward  and  visible  signs  of  difference  of 
language ;  and  their  ethnology  is,  consequently, 


THE   SEKLERS.  253 

widely  different  from  that  of  the  Jaszag  and 
Kunszag.  Of  these,  though  the  former  is  Slavonic 
and  the  latter  Turk,  in  blood,  each  is  Majiar  in 
language. 

Different,  however,  from  all  are  the  Seklers. 
Their  peculiarity  is,  that  they  were  Majiars  before 
the  great  Majiar  invasion  of  the  tenth  century ; 
Ugrians,  probably,  in  the  army  of  Attila,  as  they 
easily  might  have  been,  and  as  their  own  belief 
makes  them,  whilst  a  passage  in  Alfred  mentions 
the  Syssele  east  of  the  land  of  the  Vends,  The 
word  means  settler  in  Majiar,  and  it  is  only  by 
supposing  an  early  Majiar  invasion  that  its  presence 
in  the  pages  of  Alfred  can  be  explained. 

It  is  in  language  that  the  Majiar  is  distinct 
from  the  rest  of  Europe.  In  blood  there  is  but 
little  difference.  That  a  Majiar  female  ever 
made  her  way  from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  Hun- 
gary is  more  than  I  can  find  ;  the  presumptions 
being  against  it.  Hence,  it  is  just  possible  that 
a  whole-blooded  Majiar  was  never  born  on  the 
banks  of  the  Danube.  Whether  the  other  ele- 
ments are  most  Turk  or  most  Slavonic  is  more 
than  I  venture  to  guess. 

***** 

Why  do  I  give  a  Sarmatian  origin  to  the 
ancient  populations  of  the  Lower  and  Middle 
Danube  ?  The  details  are  too  lengthy  for  ex- 
hibition ;    a  sketch  only  can  be  given.     Special 


254  SARMATIANS   OF    THE   DANUBE. 

testimony  places  the  Thracians,  the  Getae,  the 
Daci,  and  the  Triballi  in  the  same  class.  The 
reasons  in  favour  of  the  recent  origin  of  the 
present  Servians,  Croatians,  Carinthians,  Slovaks, 
and  Tshekhs,  is  inconclusive.  The  Jazyges  of  the 
Euxine  were  in  the  same  category  w^ith  the  Jazy- 
ges of  the  Theiss,  i.e,  Slavonic.  From  these  the 
intermediate  populations  cannot  be  separated. 

But  vrhy  carry  the  Slavonic  area  further  west  ? 
In  the  Tyrol  we  have  such  geographical  names  as 
Scharn-i^;3,  Gshm^2r-thal,  and  Vintsh-gau. ;  in  the 
Vorarlberg,  JLed-nitz  and  Windisch-inatrei.  Even 
where  the  names  are  less  definitely  Slavonic,  the 
compound  sibilant  tsh,  so  predominant  in  Slavonic, 
so  exceptional  in  German,  is  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. This,  perhaps,  is  little,  yet  is  more  than 
can  be  found  in  any  country  knovni  to  have  been 
wow-Slavonic.  Besides  which,  there  are  no  pre- 
sumptions against  the  doctrine.  Again — a  Sla- 
vonic population  in  the  Vorarlberg  and  Southern 
Bavaria  best  accounts  for  the  name  Find-elicia, 
***** 

Malta,  Crete,  and  several  of  the  Greek  Islands, 
are  European  in  respect  to  their  politics  only. 
Ethnologically,  they  are  African  and  Asiatic. 
In  Malta  the  language  of  the  common  people  is 
Arabic,  and  the  blood  is  probably  Arabic  also — 
the  superadded  elements  being  numerous. 

The   aboriginal   population   of  Crete   is   pro- 


THE   ISLANDS.  255 

blematical.  '  If  we  admit  the  reasonable  presump- 
tion that  it  was  an  extension  of  that  of  the 
Continent,  Egypt  and  Phoenicia  have  each  a 
claim;  as  has  Greece.  That  Minos  represents 
a  different  person — historical  or  mythological — 
from  Menes  is  a  current  doctrine ;  but  then  the 
notion  that  any  amount  of  similarity  of  name 
may  occur  within  improbably  narrow  limits  both 
of  space  and  time  is  current  also. 

Hence,  Egyptian,  Phoenician,  Anatolian,  and 
perhaps  other  earlier  elements  are  to  be  attributed 
to  Crete  anterior  to  the  period  of  its  Helleniza- 
tion.  Of  the  subsequent  elelnents  the  Arabic  is 
the  most  important.  In  each  and  all,  too,  of  the 
other  isles,  the  basis  is  wow-Hellenic. 

I  have  no  opinion  as  to  the  original  blood  of 
Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the  Balearic  isles.  The  last 
are  Spanish  in  speech,  the  other  two  Italian, 
Arabic  elements  having  been  superadded — those 
introduced  by  the  Roman  conquest,  and  by  the 
Phoenician  having  preceded  them. 

***** 

If  the  ethnological  analyses  of  the  preceding 
pages  be  true,  the  extent  to  which  the  phenomena 
of  what  is  called  race  are  liable  to  over-valuation 
is  considerable;  so  rare  and  exceptional  is  any 
approach  to  pure  blood,  and  so  little  do  pedigree 
and  nationality  coincide.  The  most  powerful 
nations  are  the  most  heterogeneous.      Yet   the 


256  CONCLUSION. 

inference  that  mixture  favours  social  develop- 
ment v^^ould  be  as  unsafe  as  the  exaggeration  of 
the  effects  of  purity.  The  conditions  which  are 
least  favourable  for  a  prominent  place  in  the  world's 
history  are  the  best  for  the  preservation  of  old 
characters.  The  purest  populations  of  Europe 
are  the  Basques,  the  Lapps,  the  Poles,  and  the 
Frisians ;  yet  who  can  predicate  any  important 
character  common  to  them  all  ? 

To  attribute  national  aptitudes  and  inaptitudes 
or  national  predilections  and  antipathies  to  the 
unknown  influences  of  blood,  as  long  as  the 
patent  facts  of  history  and  external  circumstances 
remain  unexhausted,  is  to  cut  the  Gordian  Knot 
rather  than  to  untie  it.  That  there  is  something 
in  pedigree  is  probable  ;  but,  in  the  mind  of  the 
analytical  ethnologist,  this  something  is  much 
nearer  to  nothing  than  to  everything. 


THE    END. 


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Lithographic  Views,  7s.  6d.     Second  Edition.    Also  by  Mr.  Knox, 

GAME  BIRDS  AND  WILD  FOWL  :  their  Friends  and  their  Foes. 

With  Illustrations  by  Wolf.     Post  8vo.,  price  9s. 

THE  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  VARIETIES  OF  MAN. 
By  Robert  Gordon  Latham,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Fellow  of  King's 
College,  Cambridge  ;  Vice-President  of  the  Ethnological  Society  of 
London ;  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Ethnological  Society  of 
New  York.     8vo.,  illustrated,  21s. 


JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


WORKS  PUBLISHED   BY  MR.   VAN   VOORST. 


HERALDRY  OF  FISH.  By  Thomas  Moule.  The  Engravings, 
205  in  number,  are  from  Stained  Glass,  Tombs,  Sculpture  and 
Carving,  Medals  and  Coins,  Rolls  of  Arms,  and  Pedigrees.  8vo., 
21s.     A  few  on  large  paper  (royal  8vo.)  for  colouring,  price  21.  2s. 

A  FAMILIAR  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  HISTORY  OF  IN- 
SECTS. With  numerous  Illustrations.  By  Edward  Newman, 
F.L.S.     One  vol.  8vo.,  12s. 

A  HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  FOSSIL  MAMMALS  AND  BIRDS. 
By  Professor  Owen,  F.R.S.,  &c.  In  8vo.,  with  237  Illustrations, 
price  \l.  lis.  Qd.;  on  large  paper  (roval  8vo.),  M.  3s. 

ON  PARTHENOGENESIS  ;  or.  The'  Successive  Production  of  Pro- 
creating Individuals  from  a  single  Ovum.  By  Professor  Owen, 
F.R.S.     8vo.  OS. 

A  MANUAL  OF  GOTHIC  MOLDINGS.  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
their  Formation,  Gradual  Development,  Combinations,  and  Varieties; 
with  full  Directions  for  copying  them,  and  for  determining  their 
Dates.  By  F.  A.  Paley,  M.A.  Second  Edition,  Illustrated  by 
nearly  600  Examples.     8vo.,  7s.  Qd. 

A  HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  FOREST-TREES,  Indigenous  and 
Introduced.  By  Prideaux  John  Selby,  F.L.S..  M.W.S.,  &c. 
Nearly  200  Engravings.     8vo.  28s.,  royal  8vo.,  21. 16s. 

A  HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  BIRDS.   By  William  Yarrell,  F.L.S., 
V.P.Z.S.,  &c.     This  work  contains  a  history  and  a  portrait  of  each 
species  of  the  Birds  found  in  Britain.     The  three  volumes  contain 
535  Illustrations.     Second  Edition.     3  vols,  demy  8vo.,  U.  14s.  Gd.i 
royal  8vo.,  Ql.;  or  imperial  8vo.,  13^.  10s.    A  Supplement  to  the  first 
edition,  demy  8vo.,  2s.  Qd.;  royal  8vo.,  5s.i   imperial  8vo.,  7s.  6rf. 
Also  by  Mr.  Yarrell, 
A  HISTORY  OF  BRITISH  FISHES.    Second  Edition,  in  two  vols, 
demy  8vo.    Illustrated  by  nearly  500  Engravings,  3/.     A  Supple- 
ment to  the  First  Edition,  demy  8vo.,  7s.  Qd, ;  royal  8vo.,  15s.; 
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BAPTISMAL  FONTS.  A  Series  of  125  Engravings,  Examples  of  the 
different  Periods,  accompanied  with  Descriptions  ;  and  with  an  In- 
troductory Essay  by  Mr.  Paley.     8vo.,  \l.  Is. 

DOMESTIC  SCENES  IN  GREENLAND  AND  ICELAND.  16mo., 
Illustrated,  2s.  Qd.     Second  Edition. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PRACTICAL  KNOWLEDGE;  Explaining,  in 
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daily  used,  seen,  or  talked  of,  are ;  what  they  are  made  of,  where 
found,  and  to  what  uses  applied.  Second  Edition,  16mo.,  with  Il- 
lustrations, 3s. 

THE  POOR  ARTIST  ;  or,  Seven  Eye-Sights  and  One  Object.  Fcap. 
8vo.  6s. 

GOLDSMITH'S  VICAR  OF  WAKEFIELD.  With  32  Illustrations, 
by  William  Mulready,  R.A.  ;  engraved  by  John  Thompson. 
Square  8vo.,  \l.  Is.,  or  36s.  in  morocco. 

WATTS'S  DIVINE  AND  MORAL  SONGS.  With  30  Illustrations, 
by  C.  W.  Cope,  R.A. ;  engraved  by  John  Thompson.  Square 
8vo.,  7s.  ^d.,  or  21s.  in  morocco. 

JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1,  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


London,  l»ECUMnfiR  lebu. 


Catalogue  of  Boofts 

PUBLISHED  BY  ME.  VAN  VOORST. 


INDEX. 


Accentuated  List P'    7 

Adams  &  Baikie's  Manual  Nat.  Hist. . .  12 

Adams's  Genera  of  Mollusca 5 

Aikin's  Arts  and  Manufactures 14 

Anatomical  Manipulation    12 

Ansted's  Ancient  World 9 

Elementary  Course  of  Geology 9 

. Geologist' s  Text-  Book    9 

Gold-Seeker's  Manual    . .  .^ 9 

■ Scenery,  Science,  and  Art 14 

Babington's  Flora  of  Cambridgeshire  . .  7 

Manual  of  British  Botany 7 

Baptismal  Fonts    15 

Bate  and  Westwood's  British  Crustacea     .5 

Beale  on  Sperm  Whale 3 

Bell's  British  Quadrupeds  3 

British  Reptiles 4 

British  Stalk-e3'ed  Crustacea 5 

Bennett's  Naturalist  in  Australasia  ....  11 

Bloomfield's  Farmer's  Boy l6 

Boccius  on  Production  of  Fish   4 

Bonaparte's  List  of  Birds    3 

Brightwell's  Life  of  Linnaeus 14 

Burton's  Falconry  on  the  Indus    3 

Church  and  Northcote's  Chera.  Analysis    9 

Clark's  Testaceous  Mollusca 5 

Cocks's  Sea- Weed  Collector's  Guide 8 

Couch's  Illustrations  of  Instinct    11 

Cumming's  Isle  of  Man 13 

Currency l6 

Pallas's  Elements  of  Entomology 5 

Dalyell's  Powers  of  the  Creator 12 

Rare  Animals  of  Scotland 12 

Dawson's  Geodephaga  Britannica 7 

Domestic  Scenes  in  Greenland  &  Iceland  14 

Douglas's  World  of  Insects    6 

Dowden's  Walks  after  Wild  Flowers   . .  8 

Drew's  Practical  Meteorology    11 

Drummond's  First  Steps  to  Anatomy  . .  II 

Fconomy  of  Human  Life l6 

Elements  of  Practical  Knowledge 14 

England  before  the  Norman  Conquest. .  14 

Entomologist's  Annual    5 

Companion 6 

Evening  Thoughts 14 

Fly  Fishing  in  Salt  and  Fresh  Water    . .  4 

Forbes's  British  Star-fishes 5 

Malacologia  JMonensis 5 

and  Haniey's  British  Mollusca  ....  5 

• and  Spratt's  Travels  in  Lycia    ....  13 

Garner's  Nat.  Hist,  of  Staffordshire. ...  13 

Figures  of  Invertebrate  Animals  . .  14 

Gosse's  Aquarium 13 

• Birds  of  Jamaica 3 


Gosse's  British  Sea- Anemones,  &c.  .,p,  13 

Canadian  Naturalist 13 

Handbook  to  Marine  Aquarium    . ,    13 

Manual  of  Marine  Zoology    13 

Naturalist's  Rambles  on  i)ev.  Coast  13 

Omphalos i  o 

Tenby 13 

Gray's  Bard  and  Elegy 15 

Greg  and  Lettsom's  British  Mineralogy  10 
Griffith  &  Henfrey's  Blicrographic  Diet.  1 1 

Harvey's  British  JMarine  Algse  8 

Thesaurus  Capensis    8 

Flora  Capensis 8 

Index  Generum  Algarum 8 

Nereis  Boreali-Americana 8 

Sea-side  Book  13 

Henfrey's  Botanical  Diagrams 7 

Elementary  Course  of  Botany 7 

Rudiments  of  Botany 7 

Translation  of  Mohl 7 

Vegetation  of  Europe 7 

&  Griffith's  Micrographic  Diet.     . .    11 

&  Tulk's  Anatomical  Manipulation  12 

Hewitson's  Birds'  Eggs  3 

Exotic  Butterflies 6 

Instrumenta  Ecclesiastica 15 

Jenyns's  Observations  in  Meteorology. .    H 

Obsen'ations  in  Natural  History  . .    11 

White's  Selborne 13 

Jesse's  Angler's  Rambles    4 

Johnston's  British  Zoophytes 6 

Introduction  to  Conchology h 

Terra  Lindisfarnensis 9 

Jones's  Aquarian  Naturalist 1 1 

Animal  Kingdom 11 

Natural  History  of  Animals 1 1 

Knox's  (A.  E.)  Rambles  in  Sussex   3 

Knox  (Dr.),  Great  Artists  &  Great  Anat.  11 

Latham's  Descriptive  Ethnology J2 

Ethnology  of  British  Colonies   12 

Ethnology  of  British  Islands 12 

Ethnology  of  Europe 12 

Man  and  his  ^Migrations ]  2 

Varieties  of  Man  12 

Leach's  Synopsis  of  British  Mollusca    . .      5 

Letters  of  Rusticus    12 

Lettsom  and  Greg's  British  Mineralogy  10 

Lowe's  Faunpe  et  Florae  Maderae '.      g 

Manual  Flora  of  Madeira   8 

Malan's  Catalogue  of  Eggs 3 

Martin's  Cat.  of  Privately  Printed  Books.   16 
Melville  and  Strickland  on  the  Dodo   . .      4 

Micrographic  Dictionary 1  ] 

Mohl  on  the  Vegetable  Cell 7 


JOHN  VAN  VOOEST,  1  PATEENOSTER  ROW. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOOBST. 


Moule's  Heraldry  of  Fish p.  4 

Newman's  British  Ferns 9 

History  of  Insects 6 

■ Letters  of  Rusticus 12 

Northcote  &  Church's  Chem.  Analysis  .  9 

Owen's  British  Fossil  Mammals  10 

■ on  Skeleton  of  Extinct  Sloth 10 

Paley's  Gothic  Moldings l6 

Manual  of  Gothic  Architecture  ....  16 

Poor  Artist 14 

Prescott  on  Tobacco 14 

Prestwich's  Geological  Inquiry 10 

Ground  beneath  us 10 

Samuelson's  Honey-Bee 10 

Earthworm  and  Housefly 10 

Sclater's  Tanagers 3 

Seemann's  British  Ferns  at  One  View. .  7 

Selby's  British  Forest  Trees   8 

Shakspeare's  Seven  Ages  of  Man 15 

Sharpe's  Decorated  Windows 15 

Shield's  Hints  on  Moths  and  Butterflies  6 

Siebold  on  True  Parthenogenesis 6 

Smith's  British  Diatomacese 9 


Spratt  and  Forbes' a  Travels  in  Lycia. .  p.  If 

Stainton's  Butterflies  and  Moths ( 

History  of  the  Tineina ( 

Strickland's  Ornithological  Synonyms. .  4 

Memoirs     1( 

and  Melville  on  the  Dodo '. 

Sunday-Book  for  the  Young l4 

Tugwell's  Sea-Anemones    ( 

Tulk  and  Henfrey's  Anat.  Manipulation  15 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Illustr.  by  Mulready  It 

Watts's  Songs,  Illustrated  by  Cope  ....  1( 

Ward  (Dr.)  on  Healthy  Respiration 1^ 

Ward  (N.  B.)  on  the  Growth  of  Plants. .  i 

Westwood  and  Bate's  British  Crustacea  I 

White's  Selborne U 

Wilkinson's  Weeds  and  Wild  Flowers. .  ; 

Williams's  Chemical  JManipulation i 

Wollaston's  Insecta  Maderensia   / 

on  Variation  of  Species lil 

Yarrell's  British  Birds i 

British  Fishes    4 

on  the  Salmon ^ 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  THE  BRITISH  ISLES. 


This  Series  of  Works  is  Illustrated  by  many  Hundred  En- 
gravings  ;  every  Species  has  been  Drawn  and  Engraved  under 
the  immediate  inspection  of  the  Authors;  the  best  Artists 
have  been  employed,  and  no  care  or  expense  has  been  spared. 

A  few  Copies  have  been  printed  on  Larger  Paper, 


SESSILE-EYED   CRUSTACEA,  by  Mr.  Spencb  Bate  and  Mr. 

Westwood.     Part  1,  price  2«.  Qd.,  on  January  1st,  1861. 
QUADRUPEDS,  by  Professor  Bell.    A  New  Edition  preparing. 
BIRDS,  by  Mr.  Yarrell.    Third  Edition,  3  vols.     M  14s.  Qd. 
COLOURED  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE.  EGGS  OF  BIRDS, 

by  Mr.  Hewitson.     Third  Edition,  2  vols.,  <£4  14s.  M. 
REPTILES,  by  Professor  Bell.     Second  Edition,  12s. 
FISHES,  by  Mr.  Yarrell.     Third  Edition,  edited  by  Sir  JoHif 

Richardson,  2  vols.,  i'3  3s. 
STALK-EYED  CRUSTACEA,  by  Prof.  Bell.    8vo,  £\  5s. 
STAR-FISHES,  by  Professor  Edward  Forbes.     15s. 
ZOOPHYTES,  by  Dr.  Johnston.     Second  Edition,  2  vols.,  £2  2s. 
MOLLUSCOUS  ANIMALS  AND  THEIR  SHELLS,  by  Professor 

Edward  Forbes  and  Mr.  Hanley.     4  vols.  8vo,  £Q  lOs.    Royal 

8vo,  Coloured,  .£13. 
FOREST  TREES,  by  Mr.  Selby.    £i  8s. 
FERNS,  by  Mr.  Newman.    Third  Edition,  IBs. 
FOSSIL  MAMMALS  Aj!^D  BIRDS,  by  Prof.  Owen.    £1  lis.  Qd. 


•Tmrw  VAiff  trnn'RsiT'  i  PA'nr'R.isrnsTi^.Ti  "row 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST. 


ZOOLOGY. 

MAMMALIA. 

History  of  British  Quadrupeds,  including  the  Cetacea. 
By  THOMAS  BELL,  P.R.S.,  P.L.S.,  Professor  of  Zoology  in 
King's  College,  London.  Illustrated  by  nearly  200  Engravings, 
comprising  portraits  of  the  animals,  and  vignette  tail-pieces. 
8vo.     New  Edition  in  preparation. 

JTatural  History  of  the  Sperm  Whale,  and  a  Sketch  of  a 
South  Sea  Whaling  Voyage.  By  THOMAS  BE  ALE.  PostSvo, 
12s.  cloth. 

BIRDS. 

History  of  British  Birds.  By  WILLIAM  YARRELL,  V.P.L.S., 

F.Z.S.,  &c.  This  work  contains  a  history  and  a  picture  por- 
trait, engraved  expressly  for  the  work,  of  each  species  of  the  Birds 
found  in  Britain.  Three  volumes,  containing  550  Illustrations. 
Tliii-d  Edition,  demy  8vo,  £4  14s.  6c7. 

Coloured  Illustrations  of  the  Eggs  of  British  Birds,  with 
Descriptions  of  their  Nests  and  Nidification.  By  WILLIAM  C. 
HEWITSON.  TMrd  Edition,  2  vols.  8vo,  M  Us.  6i.  The 
figures  and  descriptions  of  the  Eggs  in  this  edition  are  from  dif- 
ferent specimens  to  those  figured  in  the  previous  editions. 

S3rstematic  Catalogue  of  the  Eggs  of  British   Birds, 

arranged  with  a  View  to  supersede  the  use  of  Labels  for  Eggs. 
By  the  Rev.  S.  C.  MALAN,  M.A.,  M.A.S.     On  writing-paper. 

8vo,  8s.  Qd. 

Ornithological  Rambles  in  Sussex.    By  A.  E.  KNOX,  M.A., 

F.L.S.  Third  Edition.  Post  8vo,  with  Four  Illustrations  by 
Wolf,  7s.  Qd. 

Falconry  in  the  Valley  of  the  Indus.    By  R.  F.  BURTON, 

Author  of  '  Goa  and  the  Blue  Mountains,'  &c.  Post  8vo,  with 
Four  Illustrations,  Gs. 

JJonograph  of  the  Birds  forming  the  Tanagrine  Genus 

CALLISTE ;  illustrated  by  Coloured  Plates  of  all  the  known 
species.  By  P.  L.  SCLATER,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  F.Z.S.,  &c.    8vo,  £2  2s. 

Birds  of  Jamaica.  By  P.  H.  GOSSE,  F.R.S.,  Author  of  the 
'  Canadian  Naturalist,'  &c.     Post  8vo,  10s. 

(Geographical  and  Comparative  List  of  the  Birds  ot 

Em-ope  and  North  America.  By  CHARLES  LUCIEN  BONA- 
PARTE, Prince  of  Musignano.     8vo,  5s. 


JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


4  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  V00R8T. 

The  Dodo  and  its  Kindred;  or,  The  History,  Affinities  and 
Osteology  of  tlie  Dodo,  Solitaire,  and  other  Extinct  Bii-ds  of  the 
Islands  Mauritius,  Eodriguez,  and  Bourbon.  Bv  H.  E.  STRICK- 
LAND, M.A.,  F.aS.,  F.R.a.S.,  and  E.  G.  MELVILLE,  M.D. 
Edin.,  M.R.C.S.  Royal  4to,  with  18  Plates  and  other  Illustra- 
tions, £1  Is. 

Ornithological  Synon3mis.  By  the  late  HUGH  EDWIN 
STRICKLAND.  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  &c.  Edited  by  Mrs.  HUGH 
EDWIN  STRICKLAND  and  SIR  WILLIAM  JARDINE, 
Bart.,  F.R.S.E.,  &c.  8vo,  Vol.  I.  containing  the  Order  Accipitres, 
12s.  M.     Vol.  II.  in  the  press. 

REPTILES. 

History  of  British  Reptiles.     By  THOMAS  BELL,  E.R.S., 

President  of  the  Linnean  Society,  V.P.Z.S.,  &c.,  Professor  of  Zoo- 
logy in  King's  College,  London.  Second  Edition,  with  50  Illus- 
trations, 12s. 

FISHES. 

production  and  Management  of  Fish  in  Fresh  Waters, 

by  Artificial  Spa-wning,  Breeding,  and  Reai'ing.  Bv  G  OTTLIEB 
BOCCIUS.    8yo,  5s. 

History  of  British  Fishes.  By  WILLIAM  YARRELL, 
V.P.L.S.,  E.Z.S.,  &c.  Third  Edition.  Edited  by  SIR  JOHN 
RICHARDSON,  M.J}.  Tayo  vols,  demy  8vo,  illustrated  by  more 
than  500  Engravings,  £S  3s. 

Yarrell.— Growth  of  the  Salmon  in  Fresh  Water.    With 

Six  Coloured  Illustrations  of  tlie  Fish  of  the  natm'al  size,  exhibit- 
ing its  structure  and  exact  appearance  at  various  stages  during  the 
first  two  years.     12s.  sewed. 

Heraldry  of  Fish.  By  THOMAS  MOULE.  Nearly  six  hun- 
dred families  are  noticed  in  this  work,  and  besides  the  several 
descriptions  of  fish,  fishing-nets,  and  boats,  are  included  also  mer- 
maids, tritons,  and  shell-fish.  Nearly  seventy  ancient  seals  are 
described,  and  upwards  of  twenty  subjects  in  stained  glass.  The 
engravings,  two  hundred  and  five  in  number,  are  from  stained 
glass,  tombs,  scul]3tm'e  and  carving,  medals  and  coins,  rolls  of 
arms,  and  pedigrees.  8vo,  21s. ;  a  few  on  large  paper  (royal 
8vo)  for  colom'ing,  £2  2s. 

Jly-Fishing  in  Salt  and  Fresh  Water.    With  Six  Coloured 

Plates,  representing  Artificial  Flies,  &c.     Svo,  7s.  Qd. 

An  Angler's  Rambles.  By  EDWARD  JESSE,  F.L.S.,  Author 
of  '  Gleanings  in  Natural  History.'  Contents :— Thames  Fishing 
— Ti-olling  in  StalFordshire—Perch  Fishing  Club— Two  Days' 
Fly-fishing  on  the  Test  —  Luckford  Fishing  Clab  —  Grayling 
Fishing— A  Visit  to  Oxford  —The  Country  Clergyman.  Post  Svo, 
10s.  6d. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST. 


INVERTEBRATA. 

TTistory  of  British  Sessile-eyed  Crustacea  (Sand-hoppevs, 
&c.).  By  C.  SPENCE  BATE,  F.L.S.,  and  J.  O.  WESTWOOD, 
F.L.S.,  &e.  With  figures  of  all  the  species,  and  tail-pieces. 
Uniform  with  the  Stalk-eyed  Crustacea  by  Professor  Bell,  JPart  1 
on  January  1st. 

History  of  British  Stalk-eyed  Crustacea  (Lobsters,  Crabs, 
Prawns,  Shrimps,  &c.).  By  THOMAS  BELL,  President  of  the 
Linnean  Society,  F.Gr.S.,  E.Z.S.,  Professor  of  Zoology  in  King's 
College,  London.  The  volume  is  illustrated  by  174  Engravings 
of  Species  and  tail-pieces.     8vo,  £1  bs.;  royal  8vo,  £2  10s. 

Introduction  to  Conchology;  or.  Elements  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Molluscous  Animals.  By  G-EORGE  JOHNSTON, 
M.D.,  LL.D.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edin- 
burgh, author  of  '  A  History  of  the  British  Zoophytes.'  8vo,  102 
Illustrations,  21.9. 

TTistory  of  British  Mollusca  and  their  Shells.  By  Pro- 
fessor  ED.  FORBES,  F.R.S.,  &c.  and  SYLVANUS  HANLEY, 
B.A.,  F.L.S.  Illustrated  by  a  figure  of  each  known  Animal  and 
of  all  the  Shells,  engi'aved  on  203  copper-plates.  4  vols.  8vo, 
£6  10s. ;  royal  8vo,  with  the  plates  coloured,  <£13. 

gynopsis  of  the  Mollusca  of  Great  Britain.     Arranged 

according  to  their  Natxiral  Affinities  and  Anatomical  Structure. 
By  W.  A.  LEACH,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  &c.  &c.  Post  Svo,  with  13 
Plates,  14s. 

History  of  the  British  Marine  Testaceous  Mollusca.  By 
WILLIAM  CLARK.    8vo,  155. 

fl-enera  of  Recent  Mollusca;  arranged  according  to  their  Or- 
ganization.  By  HENRY  and  ARTHUR  ADAMS.  This  work 
contains  a  description  and  a  figure  engraved  on  steel  of  each  genus, 
and  an  enumeration  of  the  species.  3  vols.  8vo,  ^4  10s. ;  or  royal 
8vo,  with  the  plates  coloured,  £9. 

Jljjalacologia  Monensis.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Mollusca  inhabiting 
the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  neighbouring  Sea.  By  EDWARD 
FORBES.     Post  8vo,  3s.,  Edinburgh,  1838. 

TTistory  of  British  Star-fishes,  and  other  Animals  of  the 

Class  Echinodermata.  By  EDV^ARD  FORBES,  M.W.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Botany  in  King's  College,  London.  8vo,  with  more  than 
120  Illustrations,  15s.,  or  royal  8vo,  oOs. 

Elements  of  Entomology :  an  Outline  of  the  Natm-al  History 
and  Classification  of  British  Insects.  By  WILLIAM  S.  DAL- 
LAS, F.L.S.     Post  8vo,  8s.  Gc/. 

The  Entomologist's  Annual  for  1855  to  1860.   12mo,  2s.  6d. 

each. 


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6  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  ME.  VA]^  VOOEST. 

J£istory  of  the  British  Zooph3^es.  By  GEOEGE  JOHN- 
STON, M.D.,  LL.D.  Second  Edition,  in  2  vols.  8vo,  with  an 
illustration  of  every  species.  £2  2s. ;  or  on  large  paper,  royal 
8vo,  £4  4s. 

JUajiual  of  the  Sea- Anemones  commonly  found  on  the 

English  Coast.  By  the  Eev.  GEOEGE  TUGWELL,  Oriel 
College,  Oxford.    Post  8vo,  with  Coloured  Illustrations,  7s.  6d 

JJatural  History  of  Animals.  By  Professor  T.  EYMEE 
JONES.  Vol.  II.  Insects,  &c.,  with  104  Illustrations,  post  8vo, 
12s. 

J^amiliar  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Insects ;  being  a 
Second  and  greatly  Improved  Edition  of  the  Grammar  of  Ento- 
mology. By  EDWAED  NEWMAN,  E.L.S.,  Z.S.,  &c.  With 
nearly  100  Illustrations,  8vo,  12s. 

rpie  World  of  Insects :  a  Guide  to  its  Wonders.  By  J.  W. 
DOUGLAS,  Secretary  to  the  Entomological  Society  of  London. 
This  work  contains  rambling  observations  on  the  more  interesting 
members  of  the  Insect  World  to  be  fovmd  in  the  House,  the  Gar- 
den, the  Orchard,  the  Fields,  the  Hedges,  on  the  Fences,  the 
Heaths  and  Commons,  the  Downs,  in  the  Woods,  the  Waters,  or 
on  the  Sea  Shore,  or  on  Mountains.  12mo,  stiff-paper  wrapper, 
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giebold  on  True  Parthenogenesis  in  the  Honey- Bee  and 

Silk- Worm  Moth.  Translated  from  the  German  by  W.  S. 
DALLAS,  F.L.S.    8vo,  5s. 

practical  Hints  respecting  Moths  and  Butterflies,  with 

Notices  of  their  Localities;  forming  a  Calendar  of  Entomolo- 
gical Operations  throughout  the  Year,  in  pursuit  of  Lepidoptera. 
By  EICHAED  SHIELD.     12mo,  stiff-paper  wrapper,  3s. 

gewitson's  Exotic  Butterflies.  Vol.  I.,  containing  398  Coloured 

Figtires  of  new  or  rare  species.  Five  Guineas. 

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been  equalled  and  probably  never  surpassed."— T/tg  President  in  his 
Address  to  the  Entomological  Society,  185fi. 

Of  Vol.  II.,  Sixteen  Parts  (21  to  36  of  the  entire  work)  are  at 
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Manual  of  British  Butterflies  and  Moths.  By  H.  T.  STAIN- 
TON.     2  vols.  12mo,  10s. 

IJatural  History  of  the  Tineina.     By  H.  T.  STAINTON, 

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JJntomologist's  Companion  (to  the  Tineina).  By  H.  T.  STAIN- 
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BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  ME.  VAN  VOOEST.     7 

Qeodephaga  Britannica  :  a  Monograph  of  the  Carnivorous 
Grround-Beetles  Indigenous  to  the  British  Isles.  By  J.  F. 
DAWSON,  LL.B.    8vo,  without  the  Plates,  10s. 

Jiisecta  Maderensia ;  being  an  Account  of  the  Insects  of  the 
Islands  of  the  Madeiran  droup.  By  T.  VEENON  WOL- 
LASTON,  MA.,  F.L.S.  4to,  with  Thirteen  Coloured  Plates  of 
Beetles,  i'2  2s. 

j^n  Accentuated  List  of  the  British  Lepidoptera,  with 
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mological Societies  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.     8vo,  5s. 


BOTANY. 

•Jhe  British  Ferns  at  one  View.  By  BEETHOLD  SEE- 
MANN,  Ph.D.,  F.L.S.  An  eight-page  out-folding  sheet,  with 
descriptions  of  the  Orders,  Tribes,  and  Genera,  and  a  Coloured 
figiu*e  of  a  portion  of  eaoh  species,  8vo,  cloth,  6s. 

[piora  of  Cajnbridgeshire :  or,  A  Catalogue  of  Plants  found  in 
the  County  of  Cambridge,  with  Eeferences  to  former  Catalogues, 
and  the  Localities  of  the  Earer  Species.  By  C.  C.  BABINGTON, 
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J^ajiual  of  British  Botany ;  containing  the  Flowering  Plants 
and  Ferns,  arranged  according  to  their  Natural  Orders.  By  C. 
C.  BABINGTON,  M.A.,  F.E.S.,  F.L.S.,  &c.  12mo,  the  Fourth 
Edition,  with  many  additions  and  corrections,  10s.  6c?.,  cloth. 

Weeds  and  Wild  Flowers.  By  LADY  WILKINSON.  Post 
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JJlementary  Course  of  Botany;  Structural,  Physiological,  and 
Systematic.  Witli  a  brief  Outline  of  the  Geographical  and  Geo- 
logical Distribution  of  Plants.  By  AETHUE  HENFEEY, 
F.E.S.,  L.S.,  &c..  Professor  of  Botany  in  Bang's  College,  London. 
Illustrated  by  upwards  of  500  Woodcuts.     Post  8vo,  12s.  Qd. 

.  iho  bij  Pr'ofessor  Henfrcij. 

Vegetation  of  Europe,  its    Conditions    and    Causes. 

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principles  of  the  Anatomy  and  Ph3rsiology  of  the  Ve- 
getable Cell.  By  HUGO  VON  MOHL.  Translated,  with 
the  author's  permission,  by  AETHUE  HENFEEY,  F.E.S.,  &c. 
8vo,  with  an  Illustrative  Plate  and  numerous  Woodcuts,  7s.  6c?. 

JJ^udiments  of  Botany.  A  Familiar  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Plants.  With  Illustrative  Woodcuts.  Second  Edition, 
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^  Set  of  Six  Coloured  Diagrams  j  for  Schools  and  Lectures. 
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8     BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  ME.  VAN  VOORST. 

Thiesaums  Capensis :  or,  Illustrations  of  the  South  African  Flora ; 
being  Figures  and  brief  descriptions  of  South  African  Plants, 
selected  from  tlie  Dublin  University  Herbarium.  By  W.  H. 
HARVEY,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University 
of  Dublin,  and  Keeper  of  the  Herbarium.  8vo,  Vol.  I.,  with  100 
Plates,  uncoloured,  £1  Is. 

]piora  Capensis  j  being  a  Systematic  Description  of  the  Plants 
of  the  Cape  Colony,  Cafiraria,  and  Port  Natal.  Bv  Professor 
HARVEY  and  DV.  SONDER.  Vol.  I.  Ranunculaceie  to 
Counaracese,  8vo,  12s. 

Index  Generum  Algariun :  or,  A  Systematic  Catalogue  of  the 
Genera  of  Alga3,  Marine  and  Freshwater:  with  an  Alpha- 
betical Key  to  all  the  Names  and  Synonyms.  By  Professor 
HARVEY.    8yo,  sewed,  26.  6c?. 

JlJanual  of  the  British  Marine  Algae,  containing  Generic  and 
Specific  Descriptions  of  all  the  known  British  Species  of  Sea- 
Weeds,  with  Plates  to  illustrate  all  the  Genera.  By  Professor 
HARVEY.    8vo,  £1  Is. ;  Coloured  Copies,  £1  Us.  Qd. 

Jfereis  Boreali- Americana;  or.  Contributions  towards  a 
History  of  the  Marine  Algse  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Coasts 
of  North  America.  By  Professor  HARVEY.  Royal  4to,  with 
50  Coloured  Plates,  £'6  3s. 

History  of  British  Forest-Trees.  By  PRIDEAUX  JOHN 
SELBY,  F.R.S.E.,  F.L.S.,  &c.  Each  species  is  illustrated  by  a 
portrait  of  some  well-known  or  fine  specimen,  as  a  head-piece : 
the  leaf,  florificatioii,  seed-Aesseis,  or  other  embellishments  tend- 
ing to  make  the  volume  ornamental  or  useful,  are  embodied  in 
the  text  or  inserted  as  tail -pieces.  8to,  with  nearly  200  Illustra- 
tions, ,£1  Ss. 

]y[anual  Flora  of  Madeira  and  the  adjacent  Islands  of 

Porto_  Santo  and  the  Dezertas.  By  R.  T.  LOWE,  M.A.  12mo. 
Part  i.  Thalamiflorse,  3s.  ijd.     Part  II.  in  the  press. 

primitiae  et  Novitiae  Faunae  et  Florae  Maderae  et  Portus 

Sancti.  Two  Memoirs  on  the  Ferns,  Flowering  Plants,  and 
Land  Shells  of  Madeira  and  Porto  Santo.  By  R.  T.  LOWE, 
M.A.     12mo,  (5s.  Gd.,  boards  (150  copies  printed). 

(growth  of  Plants  in  closely  Glazed  Cases.  By  N.  B. 
WAR.D,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.  Second  Edition,  Illustrated.  Post8vo,55. 

•Jhe  Sea-Weed  Collector's  Guide ;  containing  plain  Instruc- 
tions for  Collecting  and  Preserving ;  and  a  List  of  all  the  known 
Species  and  Localities  in  Great  Britain.  By  J.  COCKS,  M.D. 
Foolscap  8vo,  '2s.  6d. 

"Walks  after  Wild  Flowers ;  or  the  Botany  of  the  Bohereens. 
By  RICHARD  DOWDEN.    Foolscap  8vo,  4s.  6d. 


IH^   BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST.     9 

I^Verra  Lindisfamensis.      The  Natural  History  of  the  Eastern 

\JF  Borders.     By  GEOROE  JOHNSTON,  M.D..  &c.,  &c.      This 

IV  volume  embraces  the  Topography  and  Botany ;    and  gives  the 

Wm  popular  Names  and  Uses  of  the  Plants,  and  the  Customs  and 

w  Beliefs  which  have  been  associated  with  them.     The  chapter  on 

ly  the  Fossil  Botany  of  the  district  is  contributed  by  Gteorge  Tate, 

If  F.G-.S.     Illustrated  with  a  few  Woodcuts  and  15  Plates,  8vo, 

IP  106-.  dd. 

JJistory  of  British  Ferns.  By  EDWARD  NEWMAN.  Com- 
prising, under  each  Species,  Figures,  detailed  Descriptions,  an 
ample  List  of  Localities,  and  minute  Instructions  for  Cultivating. 
8vo,  18s. 

g3mopsis  of  the  British  Diatomaceae ;  with  Remarks  on  their 
Stru^cture,  Functions,  and  Distribution  ;  and  Instructions  for 
Collecting  and  Preserving  Specimens.  By  the  Rev.  WILLIAM 
SMITH.  The  Plates  by  Tupfen  West.  In  2  vols,  royal  8vo ; 
Vol.  L  21s.;  Vol.  IL  30s. 


CHEMISTRY,  MINERALOGY,  GEOLOGY. 

A  Memual  of  Chemical  Analysis  (Qualitative).  By  A.  B. 
NORTHCOTE,  F.C.S.,  and  ARTHUR  H.  CHURCH,  F.C.S. 
Post  8vo,  10s.  6d. 

JJandbook  of  Chemical  Manipulation.  By  C.  GREVILLE 
WILLIAMS,  late  Principal  Assistant  in  the  Laboratories  of  the 
L'niversities  of  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow.  Post  8vo,  with  very 
numerous  Woodcut  Illustrations,  15s. 

Elementary  Course  of  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Physical 

Oeogi-aphy.  By  DAVID  T.  ANSTED,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S., 
&c..  Consulting  Mining  Engineer,  Honorary  Fellow  of  King's 
College,  London,  Lecturer  on  Mineralogy  and  Oeology  at  the 
H.E.I. C.  Mil.  Sem.  at  Addiscombe,  late  Fellow  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge.  A  Second  Edition,  post  8vo,  with  many  Illustra- 
tions, 12s. 

The  Ancient  World.  By  Professor  ANSTED.  Second  Edi- 
tion, post  8vo,  10s.  i5d.,  with  149  Illustrations. 

*'  The  work  may  be  described  as  an  outline  of  the  history  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  upon  the  globe,  from  the  early  age  when  there  were  only 
8<a-weeds  and  marine  invertebrates  as  yet  in  existence,  down  to  the  era 
when  the  mammals  received  among  them  the  king  of  species,  Man.  By 
his  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  subject,  and  power  of  arrangement 
anfl  description.  Professor  Ansted  succeeds  in  producing  a  narration, 
which  tells  in  its  entire  range  like  a  romance." — Manchester  Examiner. 

Qold-Seeker's  Manual.  By  Professor  ANSTED.  Foolscap 
8vo,  3s.  GcZ. 

(geologist's  Text-Book.  Chiefly  intended  as  a  Book  of  Refer- 
ence for  the  Geological  Student.  By  Professor  ANSTED. 
Foolscap  8vo,  3.s.  ijd. 


JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


10  BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST. 

^lie  Ground  beneath  us ;  its  G-eological  Phases  and  Chang( 
Tliree  Lectures  on  the  G-eology  of  Clapham  and  the  neighbou 
hood  of  London  generally.  By  JOSEPH  PRESTWICH,  F.R.! 

F.a.S.,  &c.     8vo,  3s.  Qd.  sewed. 

Qeological  Inquiry  respecting  the  Water-bearing  Stral 

of  the  Country  around  London,  with  reference  especially  to  t 
Water  Supply  of  the  Metropolis,  and  including  some  Remar] 
on  Springs.  By  JOSEPH  PRESTWICH,  F.G.S.,  &c.  8v 
with  a  Map  and  Woodcuts,  8s.  6d. 

Tyranual  of  the  Mineralogy  of  Great  Britain  and  IrelaiK 

By  ROBERT  PHILIPS  GREG,  F.G.S.,  and  WILLIAM  ( 
LETTS  OM.    8vo,  with  numerous  Woodcuts,  15s. 

^istory  of  British  Fossil  Mammals  and  Birds.  By  Pr 
fessor  OWEN.  Tliis  volume  is  designed  as  a  companion  to  th 
by  Professor  Bell  on  the  (Recent  Mammalia)  '  British  Quadr 
peds  and  Cetacea.'  8vo,  with  237  Illustrations,  £1  lis.  6d.,  < 
large  paper  (royal  8vo),  £3  3s. 

])escription  of  the  Skeleton  of  an  Extinct  Gigantic  Slot 

(Mylodon  robustus).  With  Observations  on  the  Osteolog 
Natural  Affinities,  and  probable  Habits  of  the  Megatherioid  Qu 
drupeds  in  general.  By  RICHARD  OWEN,  F.R.S.,  &c.  4t 
£1  12s.  6d. 

Memoirs  of  Hugh  E.  Strickland,  M.A.,  Deputy  Reader  i 
Geology  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  By  SIR  WILLIA] 
JARDINE,  Bart. ;  with  a  selection  from  his  Printed  and  oth( 
Scientific  Papers.  Royal  8vo,  Illustrated  by  Maps,  Geologic 
Sections,  Plates  and  Woodcuts,  36s. 

Qmphalos.  An  Attempt  to  Untie  the  Geological  Knot.  By  P.  I 
GOSSE,  F.R.S.  The  law  of  Prochronism  in  organic  creatio: 
Post  8vo,  with  56  Illustrations  on  wood,  lOs.  Qd. 


GENERAL  NATURAL  HISTORY,  &c. 

The  Honey-Bee;  its  Natural  History,  Habits,  Anatomy,  and  M 
croscopical  Beauties.  With  Eight  Tinted  Illustrative  Plates.  B 
JAMES  SAMUELSON,  assisted  by  Dr.  J.  BRAXTON  HICKJ 
(Forming  a  Second  Part  of  Humble  Creatures.)   Post  8vo,  6s. 

Humble   Creatures  (Parti.):   the  Earthworm  and  th 

Common  Housefly.  In  Eight  Letters.  By  JAMES  SAMUEI 
SON,  assisted  by' J.  B.  HICKS,  M.D.  Lond.,  F.L.S.  With  M: 
croscopic  Illustrations  by  the  Authors.  Second  Edition,  post  8v( 
3s.  Qd. 


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BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST.  11 

Qatherings  of  a  Naturalist  in  Australasia;  being  Observa- 
tions princi]3ally  on  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Productions  of 
New  South  Wales,  New  Zealand,  and  some  of  the  Austral  Islands. 

^By   GEORGE  BENNETT,   M.D.,   E.L.S.,  F.Z.S.    8vo,  with 
8  Coloured  Plates  and  24  Woodcuts,  21s. 

Q)he  Micrographic  Dictionary:  a  Guide  to  the  Examination 
and  Investigation  of  the  Structure  and  Nature  of  Microscopic 
Objects.  By  Dr.  GRIFFITH  and  Professor  HENFREY.  Secoyid 
edition,  with  2459  Figures  (many  coloured),  in  45  Plates  and 
812  Woodcuts,  840  pp.,  8vo,  £'1  5s. 

Observations  in  Natural  History;  with  a  Calendar  of  Periodic 

1^  Phenomena.  By  the  Rev.  LEONARD  JENYNS,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 
Post  8vo,  10s.  6^. 

Observations  in  Meteorology;  relating  to  Temperature,  the 
Winds,  Atmospheric  Pressure,  the  Aqueous  Phenomena  of  the 
Atmosphere,  Weather  Changes,  &c.  By  the  Rev.  LEONARD 
JENYNS,  M.A.,  F.L.S.,  &c.     Post  8vo,  10s.  U. 

practical  Meteorology.  By  JOHN  DREW,  Ph.D.,  F.R.A.S., 
Corresponding  Member  of  the  Philosophical  Institute  of  Bale. 
Second  Edition,  foolscap  8vo,  with  11  Illustrative  Plates,  5s. 

The  Aquaxieai  Naturalist :  a  Manual  for  the  Sea-side.  By  Pro- 
fessor T.  RYMER  JONES,  F.R.S.  Post  8vo,  544  pp.,  with 
8  Coloured  Plates,  18s. 

I^atural  History  of  Animals;  being  the  substance  of  Three 
Courses  of  Lectvires  delivered  before  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Great  Britain.     By  T.  RYMER  JONES,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of 

^     Zoology  in  King's  College,  London.     Post  8vo.  Vol.  I.  with  105 
Illustrations ;  Vol.  IL  with  104  Illustrations,  12s.  each. 

general  Outline  of  the  Organization  of  the  Animal  King- 
dom, and  Manual  of  Comparative  Anatomy.  By  T.  RYMER 
JONES,  F.R.S. ,  Professor  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  King's 
College,  London ;  late  Fullerian  Professor  of  Physiology  to  the 
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  &c.  &c.  Third  Edition,  8vo, 
in  tlie  press. 

J^irst  Steps  to  Anatomy.    By  JAMES  L.  DRUMMOND,  M.D., 

Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  the  Belfast  Royal  Insti- 
tution.    With  12  Illustrative  Plates.     12mo,  5s, 

0-reat  Artists  and  Great  Anatomists:  a  Biographical  and 
Philosophical  Study.  By  R.  KNOX,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.  Post  8vo, 
Gs.  Gf/f. 

Illustrations  of  Instinct,  deduced  from  the  Habits  of  British 
Animals.  By  JONATHAN  COUCH,  F.L.S.,  Member  of  the 
Royal  Geological  Society,  and  of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Corn- 
wall, &c.    Post  8vo,  8s,  M. 


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14    BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MH.  YAN  VOORST. 

figures  Illustrating  the  Structure  of  various  Inverte- 
brate Animals  (Mollusks  and  Articulata).  Six  Plates  and  8  pp 
By  ROBERT  GARNER,  E.L.S.,  &c.    Royal  8vo,  5s.,  sewed. 

Healthy   Respiration.      By  STEPHEN   H.  WARD,   M.D. 

Eoolscap  8vo,  Is.  6d. 

Tobacco  and  its  Adulterations.  By  HENRY  P.  PRESCOTT, 

of  the  Inland  Revenue  Department.  With  upwards  of  250  Illus- 
trations drawn  and  engraved  on  Forty  Steel  Plates.  8vo,  12s.  Gd. 

A  Life  of  Linnaeus.  By  Miss  BRiaHTWELL  of  Nor^dcli. 
Foolscap  8vo,  3s.  Gd. 

Scenery,  Science,  and  Art;  being  Extracts  from  the  Note- 
book of  a  Geologist  and  Mining  Engineer.  By  Professor  D.  T. 
ANSTED,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  &c.  8vo,  w-ith  Woodcuts  and  Four 
Views  in  tinted  lithography,  10s.  Gd. 

Evening  Thoughts.  By  a  PHYSICIAN.  Post  8vo,  Second 
Edition,  4s.  M. 

"  We  cannot  help  expressing  a  wish  that  these  '  Evening  Thoughts '  may 
not  be  the  only  contributions  to  general  literature  that  we  may  have  from 
a  mind  so  powerful,  so  cultivated,  and  so  gentle  as  that  of  the  Physician 
whose  pages  we  now  close." — Guardian. 

plustrations  of  Arts  and  Manufactures;  being  a  Selection 
from  a  Series  of  Papers  read  before  the  Society  for  the  Encou- 
ragement of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce.  By  ARTHUR 
AlKIN,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  &c.,  late  Secretary  to  that  Institution. 
Foolscap  8vo,  8s. 

f][he  Poor  Artist;  or.  Seven  Eye-Sights  and  One  Object.  "SCI- 
ENCE IN  FABLE."      Foolscap  8vo,  with  a  Frontispiece,  5s. 

Sunday  Book  for  the  Young;  or.  Habits  of  Patriarchal  Times, 
in  the  East.    With  Woodcuts,  2s.  6^.    By  ANNE  BULLAR. 

Other  Books  for  Young  Persons,  hy  Mm  Bullar. 

•   3)omestic  Scenes  in  Greenland  and   Iceland.     With 

Woodcuts,  2s.     Second  Edition. 

5Jngland  before  the  Norman  Conquest.    2s.  Qd. 

JJlements  of  Practical  KnoTvledge;  or.  The  Young  Inquirer 
Answered.  Explaining  in  Que^don  and  Answer,  and  in  familiar 
language,  what  most  things  daily  used,  seen,  or  talked  of,  are  ; 
what  they  are  made  of,  where  found,  and  to  what  uses  applied. 
Including  articles  of  food  and  aliment ;  miscellanies  in  common 
use ;  metals,  gems,  jewellery ;  and  some  account  of  the  principal 
inventions  and  most  interesting  manufactures.  Second  Edition, 
18mo,  with  Illustrations,  3s.  cloth. 


JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  ME.  VAN  VOOEST.    15 


AECHITECTURE  AND  THE  FINE  ARTS,  &c. 

Instriunenta  Ecclesiastica :  a  Series  of  Working  Designs, 
engraved  on  72  Plates,  for  the  Furniture,  Fittings,  and  Decora- 
tions of  Churches  and  their  Precincts.  Edited  by  the  Ecclesio- 
iogical,  late  Cambridge  Camden  Society.  4to,  £1  lis.  6d. 
The  Second  Series  contains  a  Cemetery  Chapel,  with  Sick-house  and 
Gateway  Tower — A  Wooden  Church— A  Chapel  School— Schools 
and  School-houses — A  Village  Hospital— An  Iron  Church — .ind 
Designs  for  Funeral  Fittings,  for  Timber  Belfries,  and  for  a 
variety  of  Works  in  Metal,  Wood,  and  Stone.  Price  also 
£1  lis.  Qd. 

"Raptismal  Fonts.  A  Series  of  125  Engravings,  examples  of  the 
different  periods,  accompanied  with  Descriptions.  With  an 
Introductory  Essay  by  F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A.,  Honorary  Secre- 
tary of  the  Cambridge  Camden  Society.     8vo,  One  Gruinea. 

Treatise  on  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Decorated  Window 

Tracery  in  England.   By  EDMUND  SHAEPE,  M.A.,  Ai-chitect. 
•    8vo,  Illustrated  with  97  Woodcuts  and  Six  Engravings  on  steel; 

10s.  6d.     And  a 
Series  of  Illiistrations  of  the  Window  Tracery  of  the 
Decorated  Style  of  Ecclesiastical  Arcliitecture.     Edited,  vdth 
descriptions,  by  Mr.  SHAEPE.     Sixty  Engravings  on  steel, 
8vo,  21s. 

JJeraldry  of  Fish.  By  THOMAS  MOULE.  The  Engravings, 
205  in  number,  are  from  Stained  G-lass,  Tombs,  Sculpture,  and 
Carving,  Medals  and  Coins,  Eolls  of  Arms,  and  Pedigrees.  8vo, 
21s.    A  few  on  large  paper  (royal  8vo),  for  colouring,  £2  2s. 

ghakspeare's  Seven  Ages  of  Man.  Illustrated  by  Wm. 
MULEEADY,  E.A. ;  J.  CONSTABLE,  E.A. ;  SIE  DAVID 
WILKIE,  E.A. ;  W.  COLLINS,  E.A. ;  A.  E.  CHALON,  E.A. ; 
A.  COOPEE,  E.A. ;  SIE  A.  W.  CALLCOTT,  E.A. ;  EDWIN 
LANDSEEE,  E.A. ;  W.  HILTON,  E.A.  Post  8vo,  6s.  A  few 
copies  of  the  First  Edition  in  4to  remain  for  sale. 

Qray's  Elegy  in  a  Coiintry  Church- Yard.  Each  Stanza 
illustrated  with  an  engraving  on  wood,  from  33  original  drawings. 
Elegantly  printed,  in  post  8vo,  9s.  cloth.  (Small  edition,  2s.  6«f.) 

A  Polyglot  Edition  of  this  volume,  with  interpaged  Translations  in 
the  Greek,  Latin,  G-erman,  Italian,  and  French  languages.     12s, 

(fray's  Bard.  With  Illustrations  by  the  Hon.  Mrs.  JOHN 
TALBOT.    Post  8vo,  7s. 

The  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  With  32  Illustrations  by  WILLIAM 
MULEEADY,  E.A. ;  engraved  by  JOHN  THOMPSON.  First 
reprint.     Square  8vo,  10s.  Qd. 

"  And  there  are  some  designs  in  the  volume  in  which  art  may  justly  boast 
of  having  added  something  to  even  the  exquisite  fancy  of  Goldsmith." 
— Examiner. 


JOHN  VAN  VOOEST,  X  PATEEN03XER  KOW. 


16    BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY  MR.  VAN  VOORST. 

]y[anual  of  Gothic  Architecture.    By  F.  A.  PALEY,  M.A. 

With  a  fall  Account  of  Monumental  Brasses  and  Ecclesiastical 
Costume.     Foolscap  Svo,  with  70  Illustrations,  6s,  Qd. 

"  To  the  student  of  the  architecture  of  old  English  churches  this  beautiful 
little  volume  will  prove  a  most  acceptable  manxxaX."— Spectator. 

]y[anual  of  Gothic  Moldings.  A  Practical  Treatise  on  their 
formations,  gradual  development,  combinations,  and  varieties ; 
with  full  directions  for  copying  them,  and  for  determining  their 
dates.  Illustrated  by  nearly  600  examples.  By  F.  A.  PALEY, 
M.A.     Second  Edition,  Svo,  7s.  6^. 

"  Blouldings  are  the  scholarship  of  architecture."— C/<r/s//an  Retnem- 
brancer. 

The  Farmer's  Boy  and  other  Rural  Tales  and  Poems. 

By  ROBERT  BLOOMFIELD.  Foolscap  Svo,  7.?.  iU.  With 
13  Illustrations  by  Sidney  Cooper,  Horsley,  Frederick  Tayler, 
and  Thomas  Webster,  A.R.A. 

Watts's  Divine  and  Moral  Songs.  With  30  Illustrations 
by  C.  W.  COPE,  A.R.A. ;  engraved  by  JOHN  THOMPSON. 
Square  Svo,  7s.  Qd. ;  copies  bound  in  morocco.  One  Gruinea,    ' 

The  Economy  of  Human  Life.  In  Twelve  Books.  By  R. 
DODSLEY.  With  Twelve  Plates,  engraved  on  steel,  from  ori- 
ginal designs,  by  Frank  Howard,  Harvey,  Williams,  &c.  ISmo, 
gilt  edges,  5s. 

;Ribliographical  Catalogue  of  Privately  Printed  Books. 
By  JOHN  MARTIN,  F.S.A.     Second  Edition,  Svo,  21s. 

The  Currency  under  the  Act  of  1844 ;  together  with  Obser- 
vations on  Joint  Stock  Banks,  and  the  Causes  and  Results  of 
Commercial  Convulsions.  From  the  City  Articles  of  "The 
Times."    Svo,  Qs. 


Students'  Class-Books. 
MANUAL  OF   CHEMICAL  QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS.    By 

A.  B.  NoRTHCOTE,  F.C.S.,  and  Arthur  H.  Church,  F.C.S.     Post 

Svo,  10s.  6(7. 
HANDBOOK    OP     CHEMICAL     MANIPULATION.      By   C. 

G-REviLLE  Williams.     15s. 
ELEMENTARY  COURSE   OF    aEOLOGY,    MINERALOGY, 

AND  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY.    By  Professor  Ansted,  M.A., 

&c.     Second  Edition,  12s. 
ELEMENTARY   COURSE   OF  BOTANY:    Structural,   Physio- = 

logical,  and  Systematic.     By  Professor  Henfrey.     12.s.  Qd. 
MANUAL  OF  BRITISH  BOTANY.    By  C.  C.  Babington,  M.A. 

&c.    Fourth  Edition,  10s.  6fZ. 
GENERAL  OUTLINE  OF   THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE 

ANIMAL    KINGDOM,   by  Professor  T.  Rymer  JoxNes.     Svo, 

Third  Edition,  in  the  press. 


JOHN  VAN  VOORST,  1  PATERNOSTER  ROW. 


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